JLPT N5, N4 and N3 Grammar

は shows the topic of the sentence: the thing you are going to talk about. The important information comes after は. The topic is usually something the listener already knows or can see. Once the topic is clear, Japanese speakers usually do not repeat it in the next sentences.

AはBです says that A is B, or that A belongs to the group B. は marks the topic, and です makes the sentence polite. です does not change with the person: 'I am', 'you are' and 'she is' are all です. Use it when you talk to people you do not know well, to teachers, and at work.

This is the polite negative form of です. It is used after nouns and な-adjectives to say that something is not so. じゃありません is common in speaking. ではありません sounds more formal and is common in writing. Verbs and い-adjectives make their negative forms in a different way.

Adding か to the end of a polite sentence turns it into a question. The voice usually rises on か. In Japanese writing, a question with か normally ends with 「。」, not with a question mark. In casual speech between friends, か is usually dropped and only the voice rises (行く？).

も means 'also' or 'too'. It shows that what was true for one thing is true for another thing as well. も comes right after the word that is 'added', not at the end of the sentence like English 'too'. In a negative sentence it means 'not ... either'.

の joins two nouns. The first noun explains the second noun, so the main noun always comes last. This order is the same as English 'my book' but the opposite of 'a book of mine', and the opposite of Vietnamese. の is often translated as ''s' or 'of', but its meaning is wider: it only says that the first noun tells us something about the second.

These words point at things without saying their names. Which one you use depends on where the thing is: near you (これ), near the person you are talking to (それ), or far from both of you (あれ). Because of this, the word often changes between a question and its answer: a thing that is それ for you is これ for the person holding it. In conversation, それ can also point to what the other person has just said (それはいいですね).

この, その and あの come before a noun and show which one you mean: 'this book', 'that book (near you)', 'that book over there'. The rule for near and far is the same as for これ / それ / あれ. Like English 'this' and 'that' before a noun, この / その / あの always come before the noun. Unlike これ / それ / あれ, they cannot be used alone.

ここ, そこ and あそこ point at places, in the same way that これ, それ and あれ point at things. Note that the far form is あそこ, not あこ. こちら, そちら and あちら first mean a direction, but shop staff and office workers also use them as polite words for 'here', 'there' and 'over there'. On the phone, そちら often means 'the place where you are'.

Question words ask for a piece of information, so the answer is the information itself, not はい or いいえ. Japanese does not move the question word to the front of the sentence. It stays where the answer would be: これは本です → これは何ですか. The answer normally uses the same particle as the question: だれが来ましたか — 田中さんが来ました.

These are the question words of the こ・そ・あ・ど family: これ → どれ, この → どの, こちら → どちら. They ask the listener to choose from a group that both people can see or already know. The answer often uses a こ・そ・あ word: どれですか — これです.

〜をください is used to ask someone to give you a thing. It is the basic way to order in a restaurant and to buy things in a shop or at a ticket window. It is polite enough for shops and restaurants. It can also be used for things you cannot touch, such as time (時間をください).

Japanese verbs are divided into three groups by the way they change form. You need to know a verb's group to make the て-form, ない-form, dictionary form and た-form correctly. In Group I the sound before ます changes (書きます → 書く, 書かない, 書いて). In Group II you only take off ます or る and add the new ending (食べます → 食べる, 食べない, 食べて). Group III has two irregular verbs, する and 来る, and you simply memorize their forms.

ます makes a verb polite. Use it with people you do not know well, with teachers, at work and in shops. 〜ます is used for habits and for the future (Japanese has no separate future form), 〜ました is used for the past, and 〜ません and 〜ませんでした are the negative forms. With family and close friends, people usually use the plain form (行く, 行かない) instead.

に after a time word shows the point in time when an action happens, like 'at', 'on' or 'in' in English. It is needed after clock times, dates, months and years. Words like 今日, あした and 毎日 already work as adverbs, so they take no particle.

から marks the starting point and まで marks the end point. They are used for time (from 9 o'clock until 5 o'clock) and for place (from home to the station). You do not have to use both: use only から when you talk about the start, and only まで when you talk about the end.

と joins two or more nouns and means 'and'. It tells the listener that the list is complete: パンと卵を食べました means you ate bread and eggs, and that is all you are listing. If you want to give only some examples, use や instead.

へ shows the direction or the place that someone moves toward. At N5 it is used mostly with 行きます (go), 来ます (come) and 帰ります (return). With these verbs you can also use に, and the meaning is almost the same.

で shows the means used to do something: how you travel, what tool you use, what something is made from, or what language you use. In English it becomes 'by', 'with', 'from' or 'in'; in every case で answers the question 'using what?'.

と after a person shows who you do something with. 友だちと映画を見ました means 'I watched a movie with a friend'. Adding 一緒に makes 'together' clearer, but the meaning is the same without it.

を marks the direct object: the thing that the action is done to. In パンを食べます, パン is what you eat. Japanese word order is object + を + verb, so the verb comes last.

で after a place shows where an action happens. 図書館で勉強します means 'I study at the library': the library is the place of the activity. English uses 'at', 'in' or 'on' here, but Japanese chooses the particle by the verb: an action takes で.

〜ませんか is a polite way to invite someone to do something with you, or to offer something. The form is negative, but the meaning is not negative: 行きませんか means 'Would you like to go?'. Because it asks what the listener wants, it sounds soft and leaves room to say no.

〜ましょう means 'let's ...'. The speaker suggests doing something together with the listener and pulls the listener along. It is also the usual way to say yes to an invitation. At N5 the action is normally done by the speaker and the listener together; it is not used to state the speaker's own plan.

ね is put at the end of a sentence when the speaker thinks the listener knows or feels the same thing. It has two main uses: asking for agreement ('It's hot, isn't it?') and checking that something is correct ('The test is tomorrow, right?'). It makes the sentence sound soft and friendly. そうですね is a very common way to agree.

よ is put at the end of a sentence when the speaker tells the listener something the listener does not know or has not noticed. It is used to give information, advice, or a warning, or to tell someone not to worry. It means something like 'you know' or 'I'm telling you', but it is often not translated into English.

This に marks a point. It shows the place where a thing or person exists, the place where a movement ends, or the person an action is directed to. The place where you do an action (eat, study, work) takes で, not に. The に for time (7時に) and for purpose (買い物に行きます) are explained on their own pages.

あげます means 'give' and もらいます means 'receive'. The subject of あげます is the giver, and the subject of もらいます is the receiver. あげます is not used when the receiver is 'me': for 'someone gives me something', Japanese uses くれます, or you make yourself the subject with もらいます. This page is about giving and receiving things; doing an action for someone (〜てあげる / 〜てもらう) is N4.

もう shows that something has changed or finished earlier than now: 'already'. まだ shows that a situation has not changed: 'still' in a positive sentence, and 'not yet' in a negative sentence. To the question もう〜ましたか, the short negative answer at N5 is いいえ、まだです. With a negative, もう means 'not any more' (もう時間がありません).

An い-adjective is an adjective whose dictionary form ends in い, such as 高い, おいしい or 忙しい. The adjective itself changes to show negative and past, so です after it never changes to でした or じゃありません. です only makes the sentence polite. An い-adjective can also go directly before a noun to describe it.

な-adjectives are adjectives such as 静か, 元気, 便利, 有名 and 好き. They are called な-adjectives because they need な when they come before a noun. The word itself never changes; negative and past are shown by です, in the same way as with nouns. ではありません is more formal than じゃありません.

でした is the past form of です. It is used after nouns and な-adjectives to say what something was or how it was. The past negative is じゃありませんでした: you add でした to the negative じゃありません. Verbs and い-adjectives have their own past forms (〜ました, 〜かったです), so でした is not used with them.

あまり with a negative means that the degree, amount or frequency is low: 'not very', 'not much', 'not often'. It does not mean zero. At N5, always use あまり together with a negative form. It also makes a negative answer softer: あまり好きじゃありません is a polite way to say that you do not like something. In casual speech it is often pronounced あんまり.

ぜんぜん with a negative makes the negative complete: 'not at all', 'never', 'nothing'. It is stronger than あまり〜ない. It is also used with a few words that already have a negative meaning, such as ぜんぜん違います (completely different) and ぜんぜんだめです (no good at all). In casual conversation people sometimes say things like ぜんぜん大丈夫, but in textbooks and on the JLPT ぜんぜん goes with a negative.

どう means 'how'. 〜はどうですか asks for someone's impression or about the condition of something, and the answer is usually an adjective (おもしろいです, 大変でした). どうですか is also used to offer or suggest something: お茶はどうですか (How about some tea?). どんな means 'what kind of' and asks for a description of the noun after it; the answer is usually adjective + noun (親切な人です).

This が joins two sentences into one. Its first use is 'but': the second part is in contrast with the first part. Its second use is a soft introduction: in すみませんが or 田中ですが, が does not mean 'but'. It only prepares the listener for the question or request that follows. This が comes after a whole sentence, so it is different from the subject particle が that comes after a noun.

は does more than mark the topic. It can set one thing against another: 'A is like this, but B is different.' In a negative sentence, は often marks the thing you say 'no' about, and it hints that something else may be different: お酒は飲みません suggests 'I don't drink alcohol, but I may drink other things.'

が marks the subject: the person or thing that does the action or is in the state. It is used when the subject is new or is the important information, for example when a question word is the subject (だれが来ましたか) and in the answer (田中さんが来ました). It is also used when you describe something you see or notice right now (雨が降っています), and when you say that something exists (駅の前に銀行があります).

Words like 好き (like), きらい (dislike), 上手 (good at), 下手 (bad at), わかる (understand) and ある (have) do not show an action. They show a state: a feeling, a skill, or having something. The thing that the state is about takes が, not を. In English this thing is the object ('I like cats'), so learners often want to use を, but Japanese says わたしは猫が好きです.

から comes at the end of the reason and joins it to the result: 'reason から、result'. Note that the order is the opposite of English 'result because reason'. The result part can be a fact, but it can also be a request, an invitation or your own plan: 暑いですから、窓を開けてください. から states the reason clearly and directly, so it is very common in everyday speech.

どうして and なぜ both ask for a reason: 'why'. They usually come at the beginning of the question, or right after the topic. The answer gives the reason with から, most often in the form 〜からです. どうして is the usual word in conversation, and なぜ sounds a little more formal.

あります and います both mean 'there is' or 'to be (somewhere)'. Use います for people and animals, which are alive and move by themselves. Use あります for everything else: things, plants, buildings, and also time, money, plans and events. The place takes に, and the thing that exists takes が. The same verbs also mean 'to have': わたしは兄がいます (I have an older brother), 今日は時間があります (I have time today).

Japanese position words are nouns. You name the reference point first and join the position word to it with の: 机の上 is 'the top of the desk', that is, 'on the desk'. The order is the opposite of English and Vietnamese, where 'on' comes before 'the desk'. After the position word, you add a particle such as に or で, just as you do after any place noun.

A question word + も with a negative verb means 'not any' or 'none at all': 何も食べません (I don't eat anything), だれも来ませんでした (Nobody came), どこへも行きません (I'm not going anywhere). The word with も does not make the sentence negative by itself, so the verb must be in the negative form. English often uses one negative word ('nothing', 'nobody'), but Japanese needs も and a negative verb together.

When か is added to a question word, the word stops being a question and means 'some-': 何 (what) becomes 何か (something), だれ (who) becomes だれか (someone). You use it when you do not know, or do not need to say, exactly what, who, where or when. In a question it means 'anything / anyone / anywhere', and the question is a yes/no question: 何か食べましたか (Did you eat anything?) is answered with はい or いいえ.

Between two nouns, か means 'or': one of the two, not both. 土曜日か日曜日 is 'Saturday or Sunday'. To ask someone to choose, Japanese repeats the whole question: これは「り」ですか、「い」ですか (Is this り or い?). The listener answers with the correct half: 「り」です.

や lists two or three things as examples and tells the listener that the list is not complete: there are other things too. など ('and so on') can be added after the last noun to make this meaning clearer. Use や when you cannot or do not need to name everything. When you name everything, use と.

In Japanese you cannot count with a number alone. You add a counter that matches the kind of thing you count, a little like 'two sheets of paper' in English. The quantity usually comes after the noun and its particle, right before the verb: 切手を二枚買います. Some counters change their sound with some numbers, so the readings must be learned: 一本 is いっぽん, 三本 is さんぼん, 六本 is ろっぽん, and one person and two people are ひとり and ふたり.

This pattern tells how often something happens in a fixed period: 1週間に3回 means 'three times a week'. The particle に marks the period that the count is measured in. To ask about frequency, use 何回: 1か月に何回〜か. Short forms such as 週に1回 and 月に2回 are also very common.

だけ limits something to one thing or one amount: 'only this, nothing else'. It is a neutral word, so it does not by itself show that the speaker feels the amount is too small. The sentence can be positive or negative: リンさんだけ来ました (only Linh came) and リンさんだけ来ませんでした (only Linh did not come) are both correct, but the meaning is different.

ぐらい / くらい comes after an amount and shows that the number is not exact: 20分ぐらい is 'about 20 minutes'. It is used for how much, how many and how long. For an approximate point in time (about 3 o'clock, around April), the standard word is ごろ. When you say how long an action lasts (2時間ぐらい勉強します), the length of time is used without the particle に.

ごろ comes after a point in time and means 'at about' or 'around': 6時ごろ is 'around six o'clock'. Use it when you do not know or do not want to say the exact time. It is only for points in time. For an approximate amount or length of time (about two hours, about ten people), use ぐらい.

ずつ shows that the same amount is given to each person or thing, or that the same amount is repeated each time. みんなに2つずつあげます means 'I give two to each person', and 毎日5つずつ覚えます means 'I learn five every day'. With 1人 or 1つ it often means 'one at a time': 1人ずつ入ってください. 少しずつ means 'little by little'.

中 is added to a noun and has two readings. Read ちゅう, it means that an action is going on now (電話中 = on the phone) or that something happens at some point within a period (今週中に = by the end of this week). Read じゅう, it means the whole of a time or place with nothing left out: 一日中 is 'all day long' and 日本中 is 'all over Japan'. The reading is fixed for each word, so learn the common words one by one.

より means 'than' and marks the thing you compare with. In A は B より大きいです, A is the topic and A is the bigger one; B is only the standard. Japanese adjectives have no comparative form like 'bigger' or 'more quiet', so より alone shows the comparison. より always comes after B, the opposite of English 'than B' and Vietnamese 'hơn B', where the word comes before B.

Use this pair of patterns to compare exactly two things. The question lists both things with と and asks どちらが ('which one'). どちら is used for things, people, places and times alike when there are two. The answer marks the chosen side with のほうが ('the ... side is more ...'). In both the question and the answer the particle is が, because the point of the sentence is which one.

一番 means 'number one' and makes the superlative: 一番好きです is 'I like it the most'. Use it when you choose from three or more things or from a whole group. The group is marked with で ('among', 'in'), and the thing that comes first is marked with が. In questions, choose the question word by what you are asking about: 何 for things, だれ for people, どこ for places, いつ for times, and どれ when you choose from a short list that was just named.

ほしい says that the speaker wants to have a thing. It is an い-adjective, not a verb, so the thing you want takes が, not を. In a statement it shows the speaker's own wish, and in a question it asks about the listener's wish. For another person's wish, Japanese usually adds something such as 〜と言っています. For wanting to do an action, use verb + たい, not ほしい.

たい is added to a verb to say that the speaker wants to do that action: 日本へ行きたいです is 'I want to go to Japan'. In a statement it shows the speaker's own wish, and in a question it asks about the listener's wish. For another person's wish, Japanese usually adds something such as 〜と言っています. For wanting a thing, not an action, use noun + がほしい.

This pattern tells the purpose of going, coming or returning somewhere: 映画を見に行きます is 'I am going (somewhere) to see a movie'. The purpose is a verb ます-stem or an action noun, followed by に. The main verb is a verb of movement such as 行く, 来る or 帰る, so the place takes へ or に, not で. Tense, negation and invitations are all shown on the movement verb at the end.

Adding 方 (かた) to the ます-stem of a verb makes a noun that means 'how to do' or 'the way of doing' something. Because the new word is a noun, the thing in front of it is joined with の, not を. You can then use it like any noun: 〜方を教えてください, 〜方がわかりません, 〜方を知っています.

を does not only mark the object of an action. With verbs of movement, it marks the place you move through or along, such as a park, a road, a bridge or the sky. With 出る and 降りる, it marks the place or vehicle you leave. In both uses the noun before を is a place, not a thing that receives the action.

The て-form is a verb form that connects a verb to what comes next. It has no tense of its own; the end of the sentence shows the tense and the politeness. At N5 you need it for 〜てください (requests), 〜ています (actions in progress and states), 〜て、〜 (actions in order) and 〜てから (after doing). First check which group the verb belongs to, and then apply the sound change for that group.

〜てください is used to politely ask or tell someone to do something. You hear it in requests (教えてください), in instructions from teachers, doctors and staff (ここに書いてください), and when you kindly invite someone to do something for their own good (どうぞ、座ってください). It is polite, but it is still a direct instruction, so with a boss or a stranger people often choose a softer form such as 〜てくださいませんか (N4).

With verbs for actions that take some time, such as 食べる, 読む, 書く, 話す and 降る, 〜ています shows that the action is going on right now. It is often used with 今 and answers the question 今、何をしていますか. The past form 〜ていました shows what was going on at a certain time in the past. With verbs that show a quick change, such as 結婚する or 知る, 〜ています usually shows a state instead; see 〜ています（結果の状態・習慣・職業）.

〜ましょうか is used when the speaker offers to do something for the listener: 'Shall I ...?'. The speaker sees that the listener needs help and asks before acting. To accept, say ええ、お願いします or すみません、お願いします. To refuse politely, say いいえ、大丈夫です or いいえ、けっこうです. The same form can also be a soft 'Shall we ...?' when both people do the action together; see the comparison with 〜ましょう below.

〜ています does not only mean 'is doing'. (1) With verbs that show a quick change, such as 結婚する, 知る, 持つ, 着る and かぶる, it shows the state that continues after the change: 結婚しています (is married), 持っています (has), 帽子をかぶっています (is wearing a hat). 住んでいます (lives in) is also used this way. (2) It shows a habit that is repeated over a period of time: 毎朝、走っています. (3) It tells a person's job or school: 銀行で働いています, 大学で勉強しています.

The て-form links actions that happen one after another, in the order they are said: 'do A, (then B,) and then C'. The て-form itself has no tense, so the last verb tells you whether the whole sentence is past, present, a request and so on. Because the order has meaning, 歯を磨いて、朝ごはんを食べます means you brush your teeth first.

A てから B means 'after doing A, do B'. It makes the order clear: A comes first, and B happens only after A is done. It is often used for the right order of steps (手を洗ってから、食べます). It can also mean 'since', for something that has continued from the time of A: 日本へ来てから、毎日日本語を勉強しています.

This is the て-form of adjectives and nouns. It joins two or more descriptions in one sentence, like 'and': この部屋は広くて、明るいです. The descriptions usually point in the same direction (both good or both bad). When they are opposite, が (but) is used instead. The first part can also give a light reason for the second part, as in 暑くて、眠れません; that use is studied at N4.

This sentence pattern first gives a topic with は, and then describes one part or one side of that topic with が. 象は鼻が長いです is, word for word, 'As for elephants, the nose is long', that is, 'Elephants have long noses'. Japanese uses this pattern where English uses 'have' or 'has' for the features of people, places and things, and also for how your body feels: わたしは頭が痛いです (I have a headache).

The ない-form is the plain negative form of a verb. 行かない means the same as 行きません, but it is the plain style used with friends and family. It is also used inside longer patterns. At N5 you need it for 〜ないでください (please don't) and for plain-form sentences such as 〜ないと思います. At N4 it is the base of 〜なければなりません, 〜なくてもいいです and 〜ないほうがいいです. ない changes like an い-adjective, so the past is 〜なかった.

Use this pattern to ask or tell someone not to do something. It is the negative of 〜てください. You often see it in rules and warnings, such as in a museum or a hospital. It is also used kindly, to show you care, as in 心配しないでください (Please don't worry).

The dictionary form is the form of a verb that you find in a dictionary. It is the plain (casual) form of 〜ます, so it shows the present, the future, or a habit. You use it at the end of a sentence in casual speech. You also need it before many grammar patterns, such as 〜ことができます, 〜ことです and 〜まえに.

This pattern says that someone can do something. It has two uses. One is a person's ability or skill, as in 漢字を読むことができます (I can read kanji). The other is that something is possible in a place or situation, as in ここでカードを使うことができます (You can use a card here). The thing you can do is marked with が.

こと after a verb in the dictionary form turns the verb phrase into a noun, like 'reading books' or 'to read books' in English. A verb cannot come directly before です, が or は, so you add こと first. The most common N5 use is to talk about hobbies and dreams: わたしの趣味は〜ことです.

A まえに B means 'before A, B'. B is the action that happens first, and A happens later. The tense of the whole sentence is shown only at the end of the sentence, so the verb before まえに does not change. With a length of time, 〜まえに means '... ago'.

The た-form is the plain (casual) form of 〜ました. It shows the past, or that something is finished. You use it at the end of a sentence in casual speech. You also need it before patterns such as 〜たあとで, and before a noun, as in 昨日買った本 (the book I bought yesterday). The sound changes are the same as in the て-form, so if you know the て-form, you already know the た-form.

A たあとで B means 'after A, B'. A happens first and is finished, and then B happens. The た here does not mean that the whole sentence is in the past. The tense of the sentence is shown only at the end. It is the partner of 〜まえに (before).

なる means 'to become'. This pattern shows that a person, a thing or a situation changes into a new state. The change happens by itself or over time, and the sentence does not say who caused it. 〜なりました says the change has already happened, and 〜なります is for a change that will come or that always comes.

This pattern shows that someone changes a thing into a new state on purpose. The thing that is changed is marked with を. It is the partner of 〜くなる / 〜になる, where the thing changes and nobody is named as the cause. It is often used in requests, such as 小さくしてください and きれいにしてください. 静かにする is a set phrase that means 'to be quiet'.

An adjective describes a noun, but with 〜く or 〜に it can describe a verb. It tells you how an action is done, like 'early', 'neatly' or 'quietly' in English. The 〜く / 〜に word usually comes before the verb, and other words such as the object can come between them. よく, from いい, means 'well', and it can also mean 'often'.

The plain form is the short form that matches the polite form (〜ます / 〜です). It has two jobs. First, it ends sentences in casual speech with friends and family. Second, it is used inside a sentence before patterns such as 〜と思います, 〜と言いました and 〜から, and before a noun (before a noun, 静かだ becomes 静かな and 雨だ becomes 雨の). In the second job the sentence is still polite, because politeness is decided by the end of the sentence.

Plain style is the way you talk to friends, family and people younger than you. The meaning is the same as polite style (〜ます / 〜です), but it sounds close and relaxed. To teachers, customers, people you meet for the first time and people above you at work, use polite style. If you use plain style with them, it can sound rude. Plain style is also used in writing such as diaries.

Use と思います to give your opinion or your guess. The part before と is what you think, and it is written in the plain form. It sounds softer than a simple です／ます sentence. To say "I don't think ...", Japanese usually makes the inside negative: 来ないと思います is more common than 来ると思いません. In a statement, と思います normally shows the speaker's own thought; for another person's opinion, と思っています is usually used.

The particle と marks the words that someone says. You can repeat the exact words in 「」, or report the content in the plain form without 「」. The tense inside the quote stays the same as in the original words, even when 言いました is in the past. The same pattern is used to tell what something is called: これは日本語で「かさ」と言います.

In Japanese, a whole clause can describe a noun, and it always comes before that noun: 母が作ったケーキ = the cake that my mother made. English and Vietnamese put this part after the noun, so the word order is the opposite. The clause is in the plain form, even in a polite sentence; only the end of the whole sentence becomes です／ます. The noun with its clause works like any noun, so it can be followed by は, が, を, に and so on.

This の takes the place of a noun that both people already understand, like "one" in "the red one" or like "mine." It lets you avoid repeating the same noun: このかさはわたしのです = This umbrella is mine. It is mostly used for things. For people it can sound rude, so 人 or 方 is usually used instead.

〜とき tells the time when the main action or state happens: A とき、B = when A, B. The tense of the whole sentence is shown only at the end of the sentence. With action verbs, the form before とき shows the order of the two actions. Dictionary form + とき means B happens before A is finished (before or during A); た-form + とき means B happens after A is finished. This difference matters most with verbs of movement such as 行く, 来る and 帰る.

くれます means "give" when someone gives something to me, or to a person on my side such as my family. The giver is the subject, and it is another person, not the speaker. Japanese has two verbs for "give": あげます is for giving to other people, and くれます is for giving to me. くれます often carries a feeling of thanks. In a question, you can also use it for something given to the listener: だれがくれましたか (Who gave it to you?).

〜んです adds the feeling 'the thing is...'. You use it to explain the reason or background of something that both you and the listener can see or already know about. 〜んですか asks the listener for that kind of explanation, so it shows interest or surprise. んです is spoken; のです is used in writing and formal speech.

〜んですが explains your situation first and then leads softly into a request, a question, asking for advice or permission, or an invitation. The が here does not mean 'but'; it only connects the background to what you really want to say. If you stop at 〜んですが……, the listener understands that you need help, and this sounds polite and reserved.

〜ていただけませんか literally asks 'Couldn't I receive the favor of your doing...?'. It is a very polite way to ask someone to do something for you, and it is used with teachers, bosses, customers, and strangers. いただけ is the potential form of いただく, the humble word for もらう. With friends and family, 〜てもらえませんか or 〜てもらえない？ is enough.

〜てくださいませんか is a polite request that literally asks 'Won't you kindly do... for me?'. It is much softer than 〜てください and is used with teachers, bosses, and people you do not know well. くださいます is the ます-form of くださる, the respectful word for くれる. With friends and co-workers you are close to, use 〜てくれませんか or 〜てくれない？.

〜たらいいですか literally means 'If I do what, will it be good?'. You use it when you do not know what to do and want advice or instructions from the listener. It is often used after 〜んですが, which explains the problem first. The answer 〜たらいいですよ gives simple, friendly advice.

〜たらどうですか literally means 'How would it be if you did...?'. You use it to suggest an idea to a listener who has a problem or cannot decide what to do. The action is done by the listener, not by the speaker. It is often used together with 〜てみる (聞いてみたらどうですか) to make the suggestion lighter.

Used to give advice or a recommendation, suggesting that a particular action is the better choice for the listener.

Used to ask for or give permission to do something.

〜てもかまわない means 'it is no problem even if...'. It gives permission or shows that the speaker does not mind, and 〜てもかまいませんか politely asks for permission. It means almost the same as 〜てもいい but sounds a little more formal and reserved. 〜なくてもかまわない means that something is not necessary.

Expresses prohibition — something that is not allowed.

Expresses obligation or necessity — something that must be done.

〜なくてもいい means 'it is all right even if you don't', so it says that something is not necessary. It is the opposite of 〜なければならない (must). It does not forbid the action: the person can still do it if they want to. In casual speech も is often dropped: 行かなくていい.

Both forms literally say 'it is no good if you don't', so they mean 'must' or 'have to'. They mean the same as 〜なければならない but are used more in everyday conversation. To say that something is not necessary, do not make these forms negative; use 〜なくてもいい.

The potential form shows that someone has the ability to do something, or that the situation makes it possible. It has the same meaning as dictionary form + ことができる, but it is shorter and more common in conversation. In speech, many people drop ら from Group II verbs and 来る (食べれる, 見れる, 来れる), but on the JLPT and in writing use the full forms 食べられる, 見られる, 来られる. わかる and できる already mean 'can', so they have no potential form.

見える and 聞こえる mean that something comes into your eyes or ears naturally, without any special effort. They are used when something is visible or audible because of distance, light, noise, or your eyesight and hearing. They are not the potential forms of 見る and 聞く; those are 見られる and 聞ける.

〜しか〜ない means 'only' or 'nothing but'. It is always used with a negative predicate, and it usually shows that the speaker feels the amount is small or not enough. For example, 100円しかありません means 'I have only 100 yen (and that is too little)'. (Dictionary-form verb + しかない, 'have no choice but to', is a different use that is usually studied at N3.)

After a quantity, も shows that the speaker feels the number is large or surprising: 'as many as', 'as much as', 'as long as'. After a quantity, は shows the lowest number the speaker expects: 'at least'. The real number may be higher. With 1 + counter and a negative verb, も means 'not even one'.

Expresses that the subject does two actions at the same time, with the second action being the main one.

し adds one fact on top of another: 'and what's more'. It is often used to list two or more reasons for the judgment, decision or suggestion that comes after it. The facts must all point in the same direction (all good, or all bad). Even when し is used only once, it tells the listener that there are other reasons too, so it sounds softer than から.

Lists a few example actions or states out of several possible ones, without implying a strict order. Often used to describe a varied or repeated set of activities.

とか gives two or three examples and shows that there are other similar things too: 'things like A and B'. It is the casual, spoken version of や〜など. Unlike や, it can also follow verbs, so it is handy for giving example actions, often as advice or suggestions.

This でも gives one light example: 'tea or something'. The speaker does not insist on that thing, and anything similar is fine, so the invitation or suggestion sounds soft and easy to accept. It is a different use from でも meaning 'but', noun + でも meaning 'even', and question word + でも (何でも).

Many Japanese verbs come in pairs. A transitive verb says that someone does something to a thing, so the thing takes を: ドアを開けます (I open the door). An intransitive verb says what happens to the thing itself, without saying who did it, so the thing takes が: ドアが開きます (The door opens). Japanese often uses the intransitive verb to describe a change or a result, even when a person caused it.

With an intransitive verb that shows a change, 〜ている does not mean 'is doing'. It means that the change happened and its result can still be seen now: 窓が開いています = the window opened at some point, and it is open now. The speaker simply describes what he or she sees, and does not say who did it or why.

〜てある shows that someone did something on purpose, and the result of that action is still there now. It is used (1) to describe a scene where things have been put, written, opened and so on for some purpose, and (2) to say that a preparation has already been made. The verb is a transitive verb, but the thing often takes が because the sentence describes its state.

〜ておく has two main uses. (1) Doing something in advance, as preparation for a later need: 旅行の前に切符を買っておきます. This includes doing something now so that things are ready for the next time, such as putting tools back. (2) Leaving something in its present state on purpose: 窓を開けておきます (I'll leave the window open). It is used with actions that a person does on purpose.

Attaches to the て-form of a verb to show that an action is completed entirely. It very often carries a nuance of regret, surprise, or an unintentional/uncontrollable result ('end up doing'), but it can also simply emphasize that something is finished completely, with no negative feeling at all.

Attaches to the て-form of a verb to express doing an action once to see what happens or find out the result, out of curiosity or as a light, exploratory attempt. It does not itself express effort; it simply means 'try (it) and see'.

〜てくる and 〜ていく add a direction of movement to an action. くる means the movement is toward the place where the speaker is (or will be); いく means it is away from that place. 買ってきます means 'I'll go, buy it and come back', and 食べていきます means 'I'll eat (here) and then go'. With verbs such as 歩く, 走る, 持つ and 連れる, the pattern shows how, or with what, someone comes or goes.

Here くる and いく show movement in time, not in space. The speaker stands at 'now'. 〜てきた looks back: a change started in the past and has come up to the present (寒くなってきました = it has been getting colder). 〜ていく looks forward: a change will go on from the present into the future (寒くなっていきます = it will go on getting colder). 〜てきた can also show that something has just started to appear, as in 雨が降ってきた (It has started to rain).

まだ〜ていません says that something has not happened or been done up to now, and the speaker expects that it will or may happen later: 'not yet'. Japanese uses the 〜ている form here, not the simple past negative, because the sentence describes the present state of 'not done'.

The volitional form is the plain-style partner of 〜ましょう. It is used (1) to say 'let's ...' to friends and family: 帰ろう; (2) with か, to suggest 'shall we ...?' or to offer 'shall I ...?': 行こうか, 持とうか; (3) when you decide something in your own mind: 今日は早く寝よう. It is also the base of 〜（よ）うと思う, which tells other people your intention.

Tells the listener what you intend to do. 〜（よ）うと思います often shows a decision you are making now or have just made, and 〜（よ）うと思っています shows that you have had the idea for some time. To talk about another person's intention, 〜（よ）うと思っています is normally used, not 〜（よ）うと思います. It sounds softer and less fixed than つもりです.

Expresses the speaker's intention or plan to do (or not do) something.

Shows that something is on a schedule or has been arranged. It can be your own plan, but it is also used for plans that are not decided by your own will, such as meetings, trains, events and company business. It sounds more fixed and objective than つもりです.

Shows that someone decides by his or her own will to do, or not to do, something. It is most often used in the past form 〜ことにしました to report a decision. To say 'decided not to', put the verb in the ない form: 行かないことにしました. The form 〜ことにしている (a personal rule or habit) is studied at N3.

Shows that something has been decided, without saying who decided it. The decision usually comes from other people, a group, a discussion or the situation, not from the speaker's will alone. Japanese speakers also use it for their own decisions, such as marriage or a move, because it sounds modest, as if things turned out that way. The form 〜ことになっている (a rule or custom) is studied at N3.

Shows that you choose one thing from several possibilities. It is very common when ordering in a restaurant, when shopping, and when fixing a date, a place or a present. 〜にします is used at the moment you decide, and 〜にしました reports a choice already made.

Expresses the speaker's guess or presumption about something, often paired with words like たぶん (probably). Softer and less certain than a plain declarative statement.

The plain form of でしょう. It shows the speaker's guess about something that is not certain, and it often goes with たぶん or きっと. At the end of a sentence, だろう is used in writing and in casual speech, where it can sound rather strong or masculine. In polite conversation, people say 〜でしょう or 〜だろうと思います instead. With rising intonation (〜だろう？) it asks the listener to agree.

Shows that something is possible, but the speaker is not sure. The speaker feels that it may be true and may also be not true. It is weaker than でしょう / だろう, and it often goes with もしかしたら (perhaps). In casual speech it is shortened to 〜かも.

Shows that the speaker is fairly sure about something because there is a reason: a fact, a schedule, a promise or something the speaker remembers. It is a judgment from reasoning, not a simple guess. It is usually not used for the speaker's own intentional plans, and it does not mean 'should' in the sense of advice or duty.

Strongly denies a possibility: from what the speaker knows, it is impossible or very hard to believe. It is the speaker's own strong judgment, based on a reason. It is often used when the speaker hears or sees something surprising and cannot accept it (そんなはずはない).

Tells your impression from what you see or feel right now, before you have checked it. With adjectives it means 'looks ...' (おいしそう: looks delicious). With verbs it means that something seems about to happen or seems likely to happen (雨が降りそう: it looks like rain). It is a different pattern from the hearsay そうです, which follows the plain form (降るそうです: I heard it will rain).

Reports information the speaker heard or read from someone else, without adding their own judgement.

Shows where a piece of information comes from: the weather forecast, the news, a newspaper, a person's story and so on. Because the speaker is passing on information from that source, the end of the sentence normally shows this too, most often with the hearsay 〜そうです.

Shows a judgment that the speaker makes from what he or she sees, hears, smells or feels in the situation. The speaker is not completely sure, so it sounds careful: 'it seems that ...'. It is the speaker's own judgment, not information from someone else. In casual conversation, みたいだ is used in the same meaning.

みたいだ has two main uses. First, it shows the speaker's guess from what they see, hear, or feel: 'it seems that ...'. Second, it says that something is similar to another thing: 'like ...' (春みたいだ = it is like spring). It is the spoken, casual partner of ようだ. In formal writing, ようだ is used instead.

らしい shows that the speaker thinks something is probably true because of information from outside: something they heard from other people, read, or noticed. The speaker did not check it directly, so the sentence sounds a little distant: 'apparently', 'from what I hear'. It is often used for rumors and news. The らしい that means 'typical of' (男らしい) is a different use and is studied at N3.

This pattern compares one thing to another thing that is similar: 'like A'. のような describes a noun, and のように describes a verb or an adjective. It is also used to give an example of a kind of thing: 東京のような大きい町 (a big city such as Tokyo). This is a different use from ようだ for a guess and from ように for a purpose.

がする is used when a sound, a voice, a smell, a taste, or a feeling comes to you naturally. You are not doing anything; you just notice it. する here does not mean 'to do', and the thing you sense is marked with が, not を. In English we say 'I hear / I smell / it tastes', but Japanese says '(a sound / a smell / a taste) がする'.

The imperative form gives a strong, direct order. It sounds rough, so it is used mainly by men to close friends, family members, or people below them, and it is not used to teachers, bosses, or customers. It is also heard in emergencies (逃げろ！), when cheering (がんばれ！), and on road signs (止まれ). It is often used inside a quotation to report an order: 父は「早く寝ろ」と言いました. 〜てくれ is a rough, casual way to ask someone to do something for you.

Dictionary form + な is a strong, direct order not to do something. It is the negative partner of the imperative form (行け ↔ 行くな). It sounds rough, so it is used mainly by men to close friends, family, or people below them, and it is not used to superiors. It is also used for warnings in danger, in cheering (負けるな！), on signs, and inside quotations that report what someone was told.

なさい is a command from a person in a higher position to someone they guide: a parent to a child, or a teacher to a student. It is softer than the imperative form (食べろ), but it is still a command, not a polite request. It is also the standard form in test instructions, such as 答えなさい and 選びなさい. It is not used to superiors, customers, or strangers.

Use this pattern to explain what a word, a kanji compound, a sign, or someone's words mean. The meaning comes before という, and X (the thing you explain) is the topic with は. When you do not understand a word or a sign, ask 〜はどういう意味ですか. The same と is used in 〜と読みます to give a reading and in 〜と書いてあります to say what is written somewhere.

という gives the name of a person, place, or thing together with the kind of thing it is. Use it when the speaker or the listener (or both) does not know that person or thing well. The name comes first and the general noun comes after it: フエという町 = a town called Hue. The verb 言う has lost its meaning 'to say' here, so nobody is actually saying anything.

Use 〜と言っていました to tell the listener what another person said to you earlier. You are passing on that person's words as a message or as information. The speaker of the original words is usually a third person, not you. When you want someone to carry your message to another person, use 〜と伝えていただけませんか or 〜と伝えてください.

って is a casual spoken form. Most often it replaces the quoting と, so 〜って言っていた means the same as 〜と言っていた. It also replaces という between a name and a noun, and it can bring up a word or a person as a topic when you ask about it or give your impression. At the end of a sentence, 〜って passes on what you heard from someone. It is used in conversation with friends and family, and it is not used in formal writing.

This pattern reports an order, a request, or a piece of advice indirectly, without repeating the exact words. 先生は「早く来なさい」と言いました becomes 先生は早く来るように言いました. The verb at the end shows the kind of message: 言う (tell), 伝える (pass on a message), 頼む (ask a favor), 注意する (warn). This ように is different from the ように that shows a purpose.

〜とおりに means you do something in exactly the same way as what you saw, heard, read, or planned. The part before とおり is the model (words, instructions, a map, a plan), and the action after it follows that model without changing it. Use the dictionary form for a model that comes from now on (今から言うとおりに) and the た-form for one that you have already seen or heard (さっき言ったとおりに).

〜ないで joins two actions of the same person and has two uses. (1) 'Without doing A, do B': B is done in a state where A was not done (朝ごはんを食べないで、学校へ行きました). (2) 'Instead of doing A, do B': the person chooses B and does not do A (バスに乗らないで、歩きました). The polite request 〜ないでください ('please don't') comes from the same form and has its own page.

〜ずに means 'without doing' and has the same meaning as 〜ないで. It sounds more formal, so you see it mostly in writing, news, and notices, but some set phrases are also common in speech. The two actions are done by the same person: the second action is done in a state where the first one was not done, or in place of it. In written Japanese, 〜ず without に is also used to connect two clauses.

〜まま shows that a state stays the same and is not changed. In 'A まま、B', the state A continues while B happens: 電気をつけたまま、寝ました (I slept with the light left on). A is often a state that people would normally change first, so the sentence can sound like 'that is not the usual way'. With a verb, the た-form is used because A is the result of an action that is already finished.

'A と、B' means that whenever A happens, B follows naturally or automatically. It is used for nature, machines, directions, habits, and other results that are always the same. Because B is a natural result, B cannot be the speaker's will, a request, an invitation, or a wish (〜たいです, 〜てください, 〜ましょう, 〜つもりです); use 〜たら for those.

'A たら、B' means that B happens after A has come true. It has two main uses: (1) 'if', for a condition that may or may not happen (雨が降ったら、出かけません), and (2) 'when / after', for something that is sure to happen (駅に着いたら、電話してください). The form contains た, but it is not the past tense: it is used for the future too. After たら you can freely use a request, an invitation, the speaker's will, or a wish. When the sentence ends in the past, たら tells what happened after someone did A (薬を飲んだら、元気になりました).

'A ても、B' means that B is true or happens in spite of A: the result you would expect from A does not come. It can be used for something that has not happened yet ('even if', 雨が降っても、行きます) and for something real ('even though', 薬を飲んでも、熱が下がりません). This ても is different from the ても in 〜てもいい (permission).

A hypothetical conditional: if the condition in the first clause is met, the result in the second clause follows. One important exception: when the sentence ends in のに or a past tense and describes regret about something that did NOT happen (a counterfactual), ば is the natural choice even though the event is in the past — e.g. もっと早く出れば、間に合ったのに (If only I'd left earlier, I would have made it).

〜なら takes up what the other person has just said, or what the speaker sees in the situation, and gives advice, a request, an offer, or an opinion about it: 'if that is the case, then ...'. With a noun, it picks that noun as the topic: パソコンなら、駅前の店が安いです ('If it's computers you mean, ...'). Unlike 〜たら, the action after なら can happen before the action in front of it (車で来るなら、お酒を飲まないでください). For な-adjectives and nouns, なら is also the ordinary 'if' form (暇なら, 雨なら).

This pattern makes 〜ても stronger: however large the amount or degree of A is, the result B stays the same. B is often a negative or unexpected result (いくら食べても、太りません), but it can also show strong will (どんなに忙しくても、勉強します). いくら is common with amounts, numbers of times, and effort, and どんなに with degree; in many sentences either one can be used.

A question word together with 〜ても means 'in every case': whatever, whoever, wherever, or whenever A is, the result B is the same. The question word does not ask anything here, so the sentence does not end in か unless the whole sentence is a question. The particle after the question word stays as it would be in a normal sentence (何を, だれに, どこへ).

A question word + でも means 'any-' or 'every-': whichever one you choose, the sentence is true, with no exception. It is mostly used in affirmative sentences, and it is common with 〜いいです ('any ... is fine'), potential verbs, and requests. To say 'nothing / nobody / nowhere' with a negative verb, Japanese uses question word + も instead (何も食べません). You can also say どんな + noun + でも ('any kind of ...'): どんな質問でもいいです.

〜場合は takes one possible situation out of several and tells what to do, or what happens, in that situation. It sounds a little formal and is common in rules, notices, and instructions, often for trouble or emergencies (fire, illness, delay, a lost card). It is not used for things that are sure to happen or for a single real event that already happened. With a verb, the た-form is used when the situation must already have happened at that moment (なくした場合は), and the dictionary form when it is still going to happen (遅れる場合は).

〜といい and 〜たらいい literally mean 'if ... happens, it will be good'. You use them to say what you hope will happen, often for things you cannot control, such as the weather, a result, or another person's health. 〜といいですね shares the hope with the listener, 〜といいなあ is what you say to yourself, and 〜といいんですが sounds a little worried. For your own action, use the potential form: 行けるといいなあ (I hope I can go).

A ように B means 'do B so that A becomes true'. A is a goal state, such as being able to do something, something being visible or clear, or something bad not happening. B is what you do to reach that state. Compare it with ために, which is used when A is an action you decide to do yourself.

Expresses a gradual change in state or ability — something that was not possible or did not happen before becomes possible, or starts happening, over time.

〜ようにする means that you make an effort so that you do, or do not do, something. It does not say that you succeed every time; it says that you try and pay attention. 〜ようにしています is used for an effort that continues as a habit. 〜ようにしてください asks the listener to take care about something from now on or regularly, and it is softer and less direct than 〜てください.

A ために B means 'do B in order to do A' or 'do B for A'. With a verb, A is a goal that you decide on yourself, such as buying something, studying abroad, or passing an exam. With a noun, it shows the goal or the person who benefits: 家族のために = for my family. A different use of ため(に) shows a cause ('because of'); that use has its own page.

A ため(に) B means 'because of A, B happened / happens'. It states a cause and its result in an objective, formal way, so you often see and hear it in news, notices, station announcements and business writing. The result B is usually a fact, and often an unwelcome one such as a delay or a cancellation. In everyday conversation, から and ので are more common.

Here の turns the verb phrase into a noun, and に shows the purpose or use: 'for doing ...'. The words that follow are limited. They say what a thing is used for, whether it is convenient, useful or good for that purpose, or how much time or money the action needs. This のに is different from the のに that means 'even though'.

The passive form tells a story from the side of the person who receives an action. The active sentence 先生はわたしをほめました (The teacher praised me) becomes わたしは先生にほめられました (I was praised by the teacher). The person who receives the action is the subject, and the person who does it is marked with に. Japanese speakers often choose the passive when they talk about something that was done to themselves.

This passive shows that someone is affected, usually in an unwelcome way, by what another person or thing does. When something is done to your belongings or your body, you, the owner, become the subject: 足を踏まれました (someone stepped on my foot). When an event such as rain or a baby crying causes you trouble, Japanese can also use the passive: 雨に降られました (I got rained on). English has no direct equivalent, so do not translate word for word.

When you describe a fact about a thing or an event and the doer is not important, Japanese makes the thing the subject and uses the passive. This style is objective, so it is common in explanations, news, guidebooks and textbooks: when something was built, where an event is held, what language is spoken, what something is made from. Unlike the passive with a person as the subject, it carries no feeling of being troubled.

A verb cannot come directly before the particles は, が or を. Adding の turns the verb phrase into a noun, like '-ing' or 'to do' in English, so that it can be the topic, the subject or the object of the sentence. 〜のを忘れました means 'I forgot to do', and 〜のを知っていますか asks 'Do you know that ...?'. こと can also turn a verb into a noun, but in some patterns only one of the two is possible.

This pattern takes one part out of an ordinary sentence and puts it at the end to stress it. わたしは北海道で生まれました (I was born in Hokkaido) becomes わたしが生まれたのは北海道です (The place where I was born is Hokkaido). The clause before のは is information that the listener already knows or can guess, and the word before です is the new, important information. It is often used to correct a misunderstanding or to answer a question with だれ, どこ or いつ.

With the past tense (た-form), states that the subject has had the experience of doing something at least once. With the dictionary form, expresses that something happens occasionally.

This pattern puts a question with a question word inside a bigger sentence, like 'I don't know what time it arrives' or 'Do you know where the meeting is?'. The inner question changes to the plain form and keeps か, and then the main verb follows. If the inner question has no question word (a yes / no question), use 〜かどうか instead.

かどうか puts a yes/no question inside a bigger sentence. It means 'whether or not' or 'if': 来るかどうか、わかりません = 'I don't know whether he will come.' Use it only when the inside question has no question word (何, いつ, だれ ...). The inside question is in the plain form even when the whole sentence is polite.

The て-form (and noun + で) can show a light cause: 'A happened, and so B.' The cause comes first, and the result follows naturally from it. The result is usually a feeling, a state, or something you could not do. When the second part is a request, an invitation, or your own decision, use から or ので instead.

〜なくて is the negative of the て-form of cause. It means 'something does not happen (or is not so), and because of that ...'. The second part is usually a feeling or a result you cannot control, such as 困りました, 残念です or 安心しました. It is different from 〜ないで, which means 'without doing'.

ので comes at the end of the reason and joins it to the result: 'reason ので、result'. It presents the reason as a fact, so it sounds softer and more polite than から. It is often used when you explain your situation, make an excuse, or ask for permission. The part before ので is usually in the plain form, even in a polite sentence.

〜てよかった says that you are glad or relieved about something that really happened or that you really did: 日本に来てよかった = 'I'm glad I came to Japan.' よかった is the past form of いい, and the て-form before it gives the reason for the good feeling. With 〜なくてよかった, you are glad that something did not happen.

Connects two clauses where the result in the second clause goes against what you'd expect from the first, often carrying a nuance of surprise, disappointment, or complaint.

けれども, けれど and けど join two sentences and mean 'but' or 'although'. They are the spoken partners of が. Like が, they also have a second use: a soft introduction before a question or a request (すみませんけど、…), where there is no real contrast. In conversation, a sentence often stops at 〜けど… to sound soft and let the listener guess the rest.

〜てあげる means that someone does an action as a favor for another person. It is the 'action' version of あげる (give): you give the benefit of the action. Because it stresses your own kindness, it is used about friends, family and people below you. Said directly to a superior, it can sound rude, so offers to a superior use 〜ましょうか or お〜します instead.

〜てもらう means that the subject receives the benefit of another person's action. In English it is often 'have someone do ...' or simply 'someone did ... for me'. The person who does the action is not the subject; it is the person marked with に. The pattern shows gratitude, and it often suggests that the receiver asked for the action.

〜てくれる means that another person does something for me or for someone on my side. It is the 'action' version of くれる (give to me). The speaker uses it to show that the action was a kindness and that he or she is thankful. Without くれる, the sentence is only a plain report and the feeling of thanks is lost.

These three verbs are the polite partners of もらう, くれる and あげる. They are used when the other person is someone you should respect, such as a teacher, a boss or a customer. The direction of giving does not change: いただく = I receive, くださる = a superior gives to me, さしあげる = I give to a superior. They are not used about your own family when you talk to people outside the family.

やる is a 'downward' version of あげる: the giver is above the receiver. It is used for giving water to plants, food to animals, and things to one's own children or younger brothers and sisters; 〜てやる is the same for actions. Today many people use あげる in these cases too, because やる can sound rough. やる is not normally used for friends, strangers or superiors: to a friend it sounds rough, and to a superior it is rude.

〜ていただく means that I receive the favor of an action from someone I should respect, such as a teacher, a boss, a customer or a stranger. The meaning is the same as 〜てもらう, but いただく is a humble verb, so the sentence shows respect to the person who did the action. It is very common in polite thanks and polite requests.

〜てくださる is the respectful form of 〜てくれる. It says that a person of higher status, such as a teacher, a boss or a customer, does something for me or for a person on my side, such as my family. The speaker shows respect to that person and also a feeling of thanks. It is often used when you thank someone: 〜てくださって、ありがとうございます.

〜てさしあげる is the humble form of 〜てあげる. It says that I, or a person on my side, do something helpful for a person of higher status, such as a teacher, a customer or an elderly person. If you say it directly to that person, it can sound as if you are pushing your kindness on them, so it is mostly used when you tell another person about what you did. When you speak directly to the person, お〜します or お〜しましょうか is usually better.

〜てほしい says that the speaker wants another person to do something, or wants something to happen. The person who should do the action takes に. With 〜んですが at the end, it becomes a soft request. Said directly to a teacher or a boss, 〜てほしいです sounds too direct, so use 〜ていただけませんか there.

〜がる turns an adjective of feeling into a verb that means 'to show that feeling in words or actions'. In Japanese, you usually do not state another person's inner feeling with a plain adjective such as ほしいです or こわいです, because you cannot feel it yourself. So for a third person, 〜がる is used to describe what you can see from outside. It is not normally used for the speaker's own feelings, and about a teacher or a boss it can sound impolite.

〜たがる says that a third person wants to do something, as seen from that person's words or behavior. 〜たい is mainly for the speaker's own wish, so for someone else Japanese uses 〜たがっています or 〜たいと言っています. It is not normally used for the speaker's own wish. About a teacher or a boss it can sound impolite, so it is mostly used for family, friends, children and animals.

Attaches to verbs and adjectives to express that an action or state goes to an excessive, usually undesirable, degree.

〜やすい has two uses, and its opposite is 〜にくい. With actions that a person does on purpose, it means that the action is easy or comfortable to do: このペンは書きやすい (This pen is easy to write with). With things that happen by themselves, it means that they happen easily or often: このコップは割れやすい (This glass breaks easily). The second use is often about something you do not want.

〜にくい is the opposite of 〜やすい and has two uses. With actions that a person does on purpose, it means that the action is hard or uncomfortable to do, usually because of what the thing is like: この靴は歩きにくい (These shoes are hard to walk in). With things that happen by themselves, it means that they do not happen easily, which is often a good point: このガラスは割れにくい (This glass does not break easily).

〜はじめる shows that an action or a change starts. It is used for things a person does on purpose (読みはじめる, 習いはじめる) and also for natural events (雨が降りはじめる, 花が咲きはじめる). The action or change is one that goes on for some time after it starts. Because it can express the speaker's will, it can be used with 〜ましょう, 〜てください and 〜たい.

〜だす shows that an action or event starts suddenly or unexpectedly. It is often used with 急に and describes something the speaker sees or notices, such as rain, crying or laughing. It is usually not used for a start that the speaker plans or decides, so it does not go well with 〜ましょう, 〜てください or 〜つもりです. In some words, だす has a different meaning, 'out': 取りだす (take out), 思いだす (remember).

〜つづける shows that an action or state goes on without stopping, or that a habit is kept up for a long time. It is often used with words that show a length of time, such as 三時間, 十年間 or 朝まで. It can be used for things a person does on purpose (勉強しつづける) and for events that go on by themselves (電話が鳴りつづける).

〜おわる shows that a person finishes an action that took some time and had a fixed amount to do, such as reading a book, writing a report or eating a meal. It simply says that the action has reached its end. It is usually not used for natural events such as rain, or for actions that happen in one moment.

〜さ turns an adjective into a noun. With adjectives of size and amount, it names something you can measure: 長さ (length), 高さ (height), 重さ (weight), 大きさ (size), 速さ (speed). With other adjectives, it names the quality itself or how strong it is: 暑さ (the heat), やさしさ (kindness), 便利さ (convenience). For pairs such as 長い / 短い, the noun for the measure is usually made from the 'big' side: 長さ, 高さ, 重さ.

ところ means 'place', and here it shows which point of an action you are at right now. The form of the verb decides the meaning: dictionary form = just before the action, ている = in the middle of it, た-form = just after it. It is often used to explain your present situation to someone, for example on the phone. Words like これから, 今 and たった今 often appear with it.

たばかり says that, in the speaker's feeling, very little time has passed since something happened. The real time can be a few minutes, but it can also be weeks or months if the speaker feels it is short. It is often followed by まだ (still not used to it) or もう (already broken, already forgot), to show that the result is natural or surprising for such a short time.

Noun + ばかり says that there is a lot of the same thing, or that someone does the same thing again and again. It often carries the speaker's feeling that this is too much, so it is common in complaints and worries. It does not have to mean exactly 100%: 肉ばかり食べる means 'eats meat almost all the time', not that the person never eats anything else.

あいだ (間) means the space between a start and an end. A あいだ、B says that B continues from the start to the end of period A. Because A is a period with some length, the verb before あいだ is usually in the ている form, and B is something that lasts, not a single quick event. The subjects of A and B can be different.

A あいだに、B says that B happens at some point between the start and the end of period A. The particle に points to a point in time, just like 3時に. B is not something that continues through the whole period: it is an action you finish, or a change or event that takes place, before A ends. It is often used for things you want to get done while you have the chance.

までに marks a time limit. The action can happen at any time before that point, but not after it. It is used with actions that are done once and finished, so it is very common in requests, rules and plans: 〜までに出してください, 〜までに返さなければなりません. Before a verb, use the dictionary form even when the sentence is about the past.

A は B ほど〜ない means 'A is not as ... as B', so B is the one with the higher degree. ほど shows the level that A does not reach. The sentence must end in a negative form. It often suggests that both A and B have the quality to some degree: 今日は昨日ほど寒くない says yesterday was cold, and today is less cold.

と marks the thing you compare with. B と同じ says that A and B are the same thing or the same kind. B と同じくらい adds くらい (about) and compares the degree of a quality: A is at about the same level as B. B と違う says that A and B are not the same. You can also put both nouns first: A と B は同じです / A と B は違います.

について shows the subject matter of talking, writing, thinking or research: 'about X'. It attaches directly to a noun, with no の. The verb that follows is an activity that has content, such as 話す, 質問する or 調べる. To describe a noun, as in 'a book about X', use についての.

The causative form says that someone causes another person to do something. It has two main uses: making someone do it (an order, even if they do not want to) and letting someone do it (permission for what they want to do). The form is the same, so the context tells you which one it is; 〜させてくれる / 〜させてあげる usually show permission. It is normally used from a higher position to a lower one, such as parent to child or manager to staff.

This pattern asks the listener to allow the speaker's own action. The causative (させる) means 'let me do', and てください turns it into a request, so the person who acts is the speaker, not the listener. 〜させていただけませんか is more polite and is used with a boss, a teacher or a customer. 〜させていただきます politely announces what you are going to do, as something the other person allows.

The causative-passive is the passive of the causative form. It describes the situation from the side of the person who is forced: 'I was made to do it'. The subject is the one who actually does the action, but does it because someone else (marked with に) ordered it. It usually shows that the speaker did not want to do it or found it unpleasant.

This form shows respect for the person who does the action, such as a teacher, a boss, or a customer. It is a light honorific, less formal than お〜になる, and is very common at work and in the news. The shape is the same as the passive, so you tell them apart by the particles and the context. You never use it for your own actions.

お〜になる raises the person who does the action: a teacher, a boss, a customer, or someone you do not know well. It is more respectful than the れる／られる honorific. You never use it for your own actions; for those, use the humble pattern お〜する.

These verbs show respect for the person who does the action, such as a teacher, a boss, or a customer. For these everyday verbs, the special verb is usually preferred to お〜になる. You never use them for your own actions or, when talking to outsiders, for your own family.

お〜ください is a more respectful version of 〜てください. Staff use it to customers, and you hear it in stations, shops, hotels, and written notices. It is mostly used to invite or guide the listener politely. To ask someone politely not to do something, 〜ないでください or a fixed phrase like おやめください is used.

With お〜する the speaker lowers their own action to show respect for the person the action is for or directed to: a teacher, a boss, or a customer. The doer is always the speaker or someone on the speaker's side. It is used only when the action involves the respected person, for example carrying their bag, sending them something, or telling them something.

Humble verbs lower the speaker's own action, or the action of someone on the speaker's side such as family or co-workers, to show respect for the listener or the person the action is directed to. You hear them in self-introductions, at work, and in shops. They are never used for the action of the person you respect.

ございます and でございます are very polite forms of あります and です. They do not raise or lower any person; they simply make the speech more polite toward the listener. Shop staff, hotel staff, and announcers use them with customers. でございます is normally used about the speaker's own side or about things, not about the listener.

かな is put at the end of a sentence when you are wondering about something, mostly talking to yourself. It is casual, so it is used with plain forms among friends and family. かしら has the same meaning; it is traditionally used by women and is less common today. Said to a listener, かな can also work as a soft, indirect question.

なかなか〜ない says that something you expect or want does not happen easily: it takes a long time or is hard to do, even though you are waiting or trying. It often carries a feeling of impatience or trouble. With an affirmative adjective, なかなか means 'quite' and shows that something is better than the speaker expected.

それで connects two sentences: the first gives a cause or situation, and the second tells what happened as a result. The result is normally a fact, something that happened or is true. It is not normally followed by a request, a command, or an invitation; だから is used for those. As a question, それで asks 'and then what?'

それに adds one more point of the same kind to what you have just said: another good point after a good point, or another bad point after a bad point. It is common in conversation when you give several reasons or describe something. It does not show a result, a contrast, or the order of actions.

それでも accepts what was said in the first sentence and then says that, in spite of it, something different from what you would expect is true or will happen. It is stronger than でも: it stresses 'even with that'. It is often used with まだ, やはり, or なかなか〜ない.

〜ことにしている shows a habit or personal rule that you decided on by yourself and still keep now. 〜ことにする is the decision itself, and している shows that the decision continues as a habit. It is used for things you can control, such as exercise, food, money, or study. With the ない form it means 'I make it a rule not to do ...'.

〜ことになっている explains a rule, a custom, or a schedule that has already been decided and is in effect now. The decision was made by a group, an organization, or society, not by the speaker's own will. It is often used to explain the rules of a school, a company, or a country to someone. It is also used for a fixed plan, as in 'it has been arranged that I will ...'.

〜ようになっている explains how a machine, a tool, or a system works: it is made so that something happens, or does not happen, automatically. It describes the design, not a person's will or effort. It is often used with 〜と or 〜ば to give the condition: 'when you do A, B happens'. You see it in instructions and in explanations of products and services.

〜ますように is used to make a wish or say a prayer. You use it for things you cannot fully control, such as passing an exam, the weather, health, or luck. The words 祈っています (I am praying) are left out after ように, so the sentence stops there. Even when you talk to yourself or to friends, the verb before ように stays in the ます form.

This use of ような / ように gives a concrete example to show what kind of thing you mean. In AのようなB, A is one real example of the group B: 東京のような大きい町 means 'big cities, for example Tokyo'. AのようにB gives A as a model for an action or a state: 'in the way A does'. After a verb, 〜ような + noun shows the kind of thing by describing a typical case.

This ように means 'as' or 'in the same way as'. It points to something the listener already knows, has heard, or can see (what someone said, a picture, a table, a manual), and the main clause says something that matches it. It is often used as an opening phrase before the main point, as in ご存じのように (as you know) and 前にも言ったように (as I said before). It also tells someone to do something in the same way as a model: この絵のように (like this picture).

〜（よ）うとする shows that someone makes an effort or a move to do something, but the action is not finished yet. It has two main meanings: 'try to do' (often the try fails) and 'be just about to do' (the moment right before an action, often with とき or たら). The negative 〜（よ）うとしない means that a person shows no will to do something. It is usually said about other people, often as a complaint.

Dictionary form or ない form + ことがある says that something happens sometimes; it is not regular, but it is not zero. It is used for occasional actions, exceptions to a habit, and things that can happen from time to time. Be careful with the form of the verb: with the た form (行ったことがある) the meaning changes to a past experience, 'have done before'.

With verbs of emotion, the causative form does not mean 'order' or 'allow'. It means that a person, an action, or an event is the cause of someone's feeling: 'A makes B worry / laugh / cry / angry / happy'. Nobody is forcing anyone; the feeling comes up naturally as a result. It is often used with 〜てしまう for regret and with 〜たい / 〜たくない for what you want to do for other people.

This pattern joins the causative ('let someone do') with もらう / くれる ('receive / give a favor'). It means that someone allows me to do what I want to do, and I feel thankful for it. With もらう, I am the subject: I receive the permission. With くれる, the person who allows it is the subject. The action itself is always done by me (or someone on my side), not by the person who gives permission.

〜（さ）せていただく is the humble form of 〜（さ）せてもらう. The speaker talks about his or her own action in a humble way, as something done with the listener's permission or thanks to the listener's kindness. It is common in business, in shops, and in speeches: to announce what you are going to do (始めさせていただきます), to report what you were allowed to do, and to ask for permission politely. The person who does the action is always the speaker (or the speaker's side).

The spontaneous use of 〜（ら）れる shows that a thought or a feeling comes up naturally, by itself, without the person trying. 昔のことが思い出される means 'memories of the past come back to me (I cannot help it)'. 〜と思われる and 〜と考えられる are common in news, reports, and essays: they give an opinion in a soft and objective way, as a conclusion that anyone would naturally reach. This use belongs mostly to written or formal language.

Use 〜と言われている for something that many people say or believe in general. It is the passive of 言う, so the sentence does not name who says it. It is common for general knowledge, old stories, and a person's or place's reputation. The speaker does not say whether it is really true.

〜てくれ is the plain, strong way to ask someone to do something for you. くれ is the command form of くれる. It is used mainly by men, to close friends, family, or people below them, and it sounds rough to anyone else. It also appears in reported speech, as in 〜てくれと言われた. There it only shows that a request was made, so anyone can use it.

〜てごらん gently tells the listener to try doing something. It is a softer way to say 〜てみなさい. Parents say it to children, teachers to students, and older people to younger people. It is not used to people above you, and you cannot use it for your own actions.

お〜です is a short honorific form for the action or state of a person you respect. It most often has the meaning of 〜ています: お持ちですか means 持っていますか. With some verbs it shows something happening now or soon, or already done, as in お出かけですか and もうお帰りです. It is very common in shops, hotels, and offices. Verbs with a one-sound stem, such as 見る and いる, usually do not take this form.

These words make your speech very polite toward the listener. Use them for your own actions, for people on your side such as family and coworkers, and for things and events, as in 電車がまいります. They are common in shops, on the phone, in announcements, and in speeches. They do not show respect to the person who does the action, so do not use them for the listener's actions or for a person you respect.

〜ちゃう and 〜じゃう are the short spoken forms of 〜てしまう and 〜でしまう. The meaning is the same: an action is finished completely, or something happens that the speaker did not want or plan. They are used in everyday talk with friends and family. With ます (〜ちゃいました) they are still casual, so use 〜てしまいました in formal situations and in writing.

〜とく and 〜どく are the short spoken forms of 〜ておく and 〜でおく. The meaning is the same: do something ahead of time to get ready, or leave something as it is. They are used in everyday talk. Similar short forms are 〜てる for 〜ている (見てる) and 〜てく for 〜ていく (持ってく). In formal speech and in writing, use the full forms.

These are spoken short forms that mean 'have to'. 〜なくちゃ comes from 〜なくては, 〜なきゃ comes from 〜なければ, and 〜ないと is 'if I don't ...' with the ending left out. The ending いけない / ならない is often dropped, so the sentence can end with 〜なくちゃ, 〜なきゃ, or 〜ないと. People often use them to talk to themselves or to close friends about what they must do.

This って brings up a topic in casual speech. It is the spoken form of 〜は or 〜というのは. People use it to ask what a word means, to ask about a person or thing, or to give their feeling or opinion about it. It is not used in formal speech or writing.

〜っけ is put at the end of a sentence when you are trying to remember something that you knew or heard before. You can say it to yourself, or you can ask the listener to check your memory. The た-form is often used even for present or future things, because you are recalling what you learned in the past. It is a spoken form; with でしたっけ / ましたっけ it can be used politely in conversation.

〜もの / 〜もん at the end of a sentence gives a reason in casual talk. It often sounds like an excuse, a complaint, or 'of course, because ...'. It is often used together with だって at the start. もん is more casual and is used a lot by children and young people; もの sounds a little softer and is used more by women. Do not use it in formal situations.

〜たって and 〜だって are the casual spoken forms of 〜ても and 〜でも. They mean 'even if' or 'even though': the result does not change. They are often used with いくら, どんなに, or a question word. A noun + だって also means 'even ...' or '... too', like 〜でも / 〜も. In formal speech and in writing, use 〜ても / 〜でも.

間 is a period of time with a start and an end. A 間、B means that B goes on from the start to the end of A, so B often has ずっと or a form like 〜ていた. A 間に、B means that B happens, or is finished, at some point before A ends. The subjects of A and B can be different people. At N3 it is usually written with the kanji 間, and you must choose between 間 and 間に by looking at the main clause.

A うちに、B means 'do B while A is still true, before A changes'. The speaker feels that after the change it will be too late, difficult or not as good, so B is often advice, a plan or a request. With the ない-form it means 'before ... happens': 忘れないうちに = before I forget. This is a different use from the うちに that shows a gradual change, as in 話しているうちに仲良くなった.

A うちに、B means that while A continued, B happened naturally, often little by little or before the speaker noticed. B is not something the speaker decided to do. The ない-form gives phrases like しばらく会わないうちに (while we had not met for some time) and 気がつかないうちに (before I noticed). This is a different use from the うちに that means 'before it changes', as in 忘れないうちにメモする.

最中 means the point when an action is most active. A 最中に、B says that B happened right in the middle of A. B is often something sudden that stops or disturbs A, such as a phone ringing or an earthquake. 〜最中だ at the end of a sentence tells the listener that you are busy with something right now.

This pattern grows out of 〜ところだ. ところ is a scene or stage of an action (about to do, doing, just did), and the particle links that scene to the next event. With に or へ, something arrives at that scene: a person comes, or a call comes in. With を, the scene is the object of the next verb: someone sees it, finds it or helps in it. The second event often changes or stops what the person was doing.

A たとたん、B means that B happened at almost the same moment as A finished. B is a sudden change or event, and the sentence carries the speaker's surprise. Because B is something the speaker noticed, not something the speaker chose to do, the main clause is not a plan, a request or an order. The pattern is used for things that have really happened, so the sentence usually ends in the past.

A てからでないと、B means that B is impossible or not allowed unless A is done first. A is a necessary condition, and B is a negative or unwanted result: 〜できない, 〜てはいけない, 無理だ, 困る. The real message is positive: 'do A first, and then B becomes possible'. It is often used for rules, for permission, and for explaining why you cannot answer or decide yet.

A てはじめて、B means that B did not happen before A, and A was the experience that made B happen for the first time. It is often used when you look back and say that you did not understand something until you experienced it yourself. B is a realization or a new situation, not an action you plan to do or ask someone to do.

A て以来、B means that the same situation B has continued all the time since A happened. A is an event at some distance in the past, not something from a few hours ago. B is not an action done only once, and the pattern is not used for the future. It sounds a little formal, and it is common in writing and in polite talk.

A たびに、B means 'every time A happens, B happens too'. A is something that happens again and again, and B follows it each time. B is often a feeling, a memory or a change that comes naturally (思い出す, 緊張する, 〜なる), but it can also be something the speaker always does on that occasion. It is not used for one single occasion; for that, use とき.

A ついでに、B means 'while doing A, I also do B, because it is a good chance'. A is the main thing you planned to do, and B is an extra action that is easy to add because you are doing A anyway. B is something a person does on purpose, so things that just happen, like rain starting, do not come after ついでに. It is very common in requests such as 〜ついでに、〜てくれない？

〜際（に） means the same as 〜とき, 'when / at the time of', but it is formal. It is common in notices, announcements, instructions, business emails and polite speech, and it is often followed by a request or a rule (〜てください, 〜ないでください). It is used for a particular action or occasion, such as using, leaving or applying, and it is usually not used for ages or states like 子ども or 若い. In casual talk with friends, とき is the natural choice.

Shows a rough range of time or place. Something continues, or happens here and there, through that range. The start and the end are not exact points, so this pattern is common in weather forecasts and news. It is also used for a part of the body (肩から背中にかけて).

ごとに has three uses. With a plain noun it means 'for each one' or 'one by one as a unit' (クラスごとに = class by class). With a number it means that something is repeated at that regular interval (15分ごとに = every 15 minutes). With a verb it means 'every time someone does it', and something usually changes little by little.

おきに comes from 置く (to leave) and means 'leaving that much in between'. With days, weeks, months, years, and things you count one by one (lines, seats), that number is skipped: 1日おきに is 'every other day', and 1行おきに is 'on every other line'. With minutes, hours, and distance, it usually means the same as ごとに: 10分おきに is 'every 10 minutes'.

ぶり shows that something happens again after that length of time. For that whole time it did not happen, and the speaker usually feels that the time was long. 5年ぶりに国へ帰った means 'I went back to my country for the first time in five years'. It is about one event that happens again now, not about a repeated schedule.

This pattern compares something to a thing that it is not: 'it is just like ...', 'it is as if ...'. まるで makes the comparison strong and tells the listener that it is only a comparison, not a fact. みたいだ is casual and used in conversation; ようだ is also used in writing. Note that まるで + negative (まるで分からない) is a different use that means 'not at all'.

Noun + らしい says that a person or thing has the qualities that people expect from that noun. The person or thing really is that noun: 春らしい天気 is said in spring, and 子どもらしい is said about a child. It usually sounds positive. The negative 〜らしくない means 'not like what we expect from ...', as in 田中さんらしくない (that's not like Mr. Tanaka).

っぽい makes a word that describes how something looks or feels. With a noun, it means 'looks or feels like ...': 白っぽい is 'whitish', and 子どもっぽい about an adult means 'childish'. It is often used when the person or thing is not really that noun, and it often sounds negative, but not always: 大人っぽい can be praise for a young person. With the ます-stem of a few verbs, it describes a person who does that easily, like 忘れっぽい (forgetful). It is casual and very common in conversation.

がち says that something often happens, or that people easily fall into doing something. It is usually used for things that are not good or not wanted, such as being late, forgetting, being sick, or not getting enough exercise. It can describe a general tendency (冬は運動不足になりがちだ) or a person's recent pattern (最近、授業を休みがちだ). がち means 'often', not 'always' or 'every time'.

気味 (read ぎみ here) says that someone or something is a little in a certain state. It is usually used for states that are not good, especially health, feelings, and plans: 風邪気味 (a slight cold), 疲れ気味 (a bit tired), 遅れ気味 (a little behind). It often comes with 少し or ちょっと. Because it means 'a little', it is not used for a very strong or serious state. The 気味 in 気味が悪い is read きみ and means something different ('creepy').

だらけ says that there is a lot of something all over a place or thing, often more than you want. It is usually used for dirty or unwanted things, such as mud, dust, trash, mistakes, and scratches: 服が泥だらけになった means 'my clothes got covered in mud'. The speaker often feels that it is too much or unpleasant. For nice things, いっぱい is usually used instead.

〜をしている describes how a person, animal, or thing looks or what it is like: its shape, color, face, eyes, voice, and so on. Here する is not an action; it shows a quality that the person or thing has. It is usually used as をしている / をしていた (or をした before a noun), and the noun needs a word that describes it: 丸い形をしている, not just 形をしている. In English, 'have' or 'look' is often the best translation: 青い目をしている means 'has blue eyes', and 疲れた顔をしている means 'looks tired'.

〜ふりをする means 'to pretend': to act as if something is true when it is not, so that other people believe it. 知らないふりをする means that the person really knows but acts as if he or she doesn't. It is used for people, and sometimes animals, who act that way on purpose. The past ふりをした and the continuing ふりをしている are very common.

Use 〜気がする when you feel that something is so, but you have no clear reason or proof. It is softer and less sure than 〜と思う. Adding ような (〜ような気がする) makes the statement even vaguer. The feeling is the speaker's own.

どうやら and どうも are adverbs that go together with a guessing ending such as らしい, ようだ or みたいだ. They show that the speaker is not sure, but is guessing from what he or she sees, hears or feels. どうも often adds the feeling "I can't say exactly why, but…". The adverb comes early in the sentence, so the listener knows that a guess is coming.

This is the 〜そうだ of appearance ("looks like it will…") with the adverb 今にも added. 今にも means "at any moment", so the whole pattern says that something looks as if it will happen right now, in front of your eyes. It is used with verbs and describes what the speaker sees or feels at that moment.

This is the negative of the 〜そうだ of appearance when it follows a verb. It means that, judging from the present situation, something is unlikely to happen or there is no sign that it will happen. 〜そうにない and 〜そうもない have almost the same meaning. For adjectives a different negative is used (おいしくなさそうだ).

〜そうになる means that something came very close to happening, but in the end it did not happen. It is usually something the speaker did not want or could not control, such as falling, crying, forgetting or being late. The 〜そうだ of appearance ("looks about to") is combined with なる ("become"), so it describes the moment when the situation reached that point.

With もう少しで or a たら / ば clause, 〜ところだった means that something almost happened, but in the end it did not. It is usually a bad result that the speaker escaped, so it often sounds like "That was close!" With a good result, it shows regret: もう少しで勝つところだった (we nearly won). Be careful: without these hints, 〜ところだった can also be the simple past of the N4 〜ところだ, meaning "was just about to".

〜きる means to do something all the way to the end, so that nothing is left: 使いきる (use it all up), 読みきる (read it to the last page). 〜きれない means you cannot finish because there is too much or it is too hard: 食べきれない (too much to eat), 数えきれない (too many to count). With some verbs, 〜きる shows a very strong state: 疲れきる (be completely tired out).

〜かける means that an action has started but has not finished. It is often used when you stopped in the middle, or when something is left half-done: 読みかけの本 (a book I am partway through). With verbs of change, 〜かけている means that the change has already begun and is close to its end: 電池が切れかけている (the battery is almost dead). 〜かけの is the noun-like form used before a noun.

〜たて means that something has just been done, so it is still fresh or new. It is mostly used for food (焼きたて, 作りたて, 取れたて), for things that were just washed or painted (洗いたて, 塗りたて), and for people who have just started something (生まれたて, 入社したて, 覚えたて). It describes the fresh state of the thing or person, and it usually sounds positive for food.

〜づらい means that doing something is hard because it causes the speaker pain, discomfort or an uneasy feeling. It is used for physical difficulty (足が痛くて歩きづらい) and very often for psychological difficulty, such as feeling awkward or shy (先生に言いづらい, 友だちに頼みづらい). The point is the burden that the person doing the action feels.

〜っぱなし has two main uses. First, something is left in a state that should normally be changed or finished: 電気をつけっぱなし (leaving the light on), 窓を開けっぱなし (leaving the window open). Second, the same action or state continues for a long time: 立ちっぱなし (standing the whole time), 負けっぱなし (losing again and again). In both uses it often shows that the speaker thinks it is careless, tiring or not good.

〜み turns an adjective into a noun that names a quality you feel with your body or heart, such as a taste, a pain or an emotion: 甘み (sweet taste), 痛み (pain), 悲しみ (sadness), 温かみ (warmth of feeling). Some words have a special meaning: 楽しみ (something you look forward to), 強み (a strong point), 重み (importance, weight of meaning). Compared with 〜さ, which often shows a degree or an amount, 〜み feels more concrete and personal.

〜向け shows who a product, service or piece of information was made for. The maker had that target in mind from the start. It is very common in shops, advertisements and news: 子ども向けの本 is a book that was written for children.

〜向き has two uses. With a person or a purpose, it means that something is suitable for them: 初心者向きの山 is a mountain that is good for beginners. With a direction word (東・西・南・北), it shows which way something faces: 南向きの部屋 is a room that faces south.

〜一方だ says that a change keeps going in one direction and shows no sign of stopping. It is used mostly for changes the speaker is not happy about, such as prices going up or health getting worse. It is a little formal and is common in news and written Japanese.

This pattern shows how strong a state or feeling is by giving an example or a comparison: 死ぬほど疲れた means 'I am so tired I could die'. The part before ほど / くらい is often not something that really happens; it is a picture of the degree. ほど and くらい mean almost the same here, but くらい is a little more casual.

This pattern says that A is number one: 'there is nothing as ... as A'. The sentence ends in a negative, but the meaning about A is strongly positive (or strongly negative, with a word like つらい). It shows the speaker's own feeling or opinion, so it is common when you praise or complain. くらい is a little more casual than ほど.

This pattern says that when one thing increases in degree, another thing changes together with it: 'the more you do A, the more B'. The same word is said twice, first in the ば-form and then before ほど. The second half of the sentence usually shows a change or a degree, such as 上手になる, 難しい or いい.

This だけ does not mean 'only'. It means 'up to the limit': as much as you can, as much as you want, or as much as you need. The word before だけ sets that limit, and the verb after it says what you do up to that limit: 食べられるだけ食べる means 'eat as much as you can eat'.

〜に比べて names the thing you use as a standard, and the sentence then says how something else is different from it. It is often used for changes over time (去年に比べて, 先月に比べて) and for differences between places or people. に比べて and と比べて have almost the same meaning. It sounds a little more formal than より.

〜と違って means 'unlike A': it takes A as a point of comparison and says that B is not like A. It is used for differences between people, places and times, and also for 'different from what I expected or heard' (思っていたのと違って, 天気予報と違って). The main sentence talks about B, not A.

〜というより is used when you first think of one word for something, and then choose a better one: 'it is not really A; B is a better way to say it'. It does not compare two different things; it compares two ways of describing the same thing. The more accurate word always comes after というより.

〜わりに says that, considering A, the result B is more or less than you would expect. A is often a degree or amount (price, age, how much you studied), and B is the speaker's evaluation. It can be positive (値段のわりにおいしい: tasty for the price) or negative (たくさん勉強したわりに点が悪い).

〜にしては takes a fact (A) and says that the result (B) is different from what is normal for A: 'for a child', 'for September', 'for a first try'. It shows the speaker's surprise, and B can be praise or criticism. B is something that goes against the normal image of A, not something you would expect from it.

'A くせに B' means 'even though A, the person does B', and the speaker is angry, annoyed, or looks down on that person. It is like のに, but the feeling of blame is much stronger. Usually both parts are about the same person, and that person is not the speaker. It is used in conversation and can sound rude, so do not use it about your teacher or boss to their face.

'A おかげで B' means 'thanks to A, B': A is the cause of a good result B, and the speaker feels thankful for it. B is usually something that has already happened or a state that is true now. Sometimes people use おかげで with a bad result as sarcasm: 君が寝坊したおかげで… ('thanks a lot to you...'). For a bad result said plainly, use せいで.

'A せいで B' means 'because of A, the bad result B happened', and the speaker blames A for it. 'A せいか B' means 'maybe because of A, B': the speaker thinks A is probably the cause but is not sure. The result after せいで is bad; the result after せいか is often bad too, but it can also be neutral. B is a result, not a request or an invitation.

'A によって B' means 'B happened because of A'. It shows the cause in a formal, objective way, so it is common in news, reports and written explanations. B is usually a fact, often damage or a change, and not the speaker's wish or a request. This によって is different from によって for a means (by), for differences (depending on), and for the doer in a passive sentence (written by).

'A のだから B' presents A as a fact that both the speaker and the listener know or must accept, and from that fact the speaker gives a strong judgment, advice, request or criticism B. It feels like 'since A is true (you know that), of course B'. It is stronger than から and can sound pushy. At the end of a sentence, 〜んだから shows that the speaker is annoyed.

'A ものだから B' gives a personal reason A for B, often to explain or excuse something bad such as being late or making a mistake. It has the feeling 'it couldn't be helped, because A'. もので is a little softer and is common in polite apologies. The second part is usually a fact or a result, and it is not usually an order or an invitation (〜なさい, 〜ましょう).

'A からこそ B' stresses that A is the real and important reason for B: 'it is precisely because of A that B'. Sometimes A looks like a reason for the opposite (忙しいからこそ、休みが大切だ), and からこそ shows the speaker's strong opinion. It is usually used for positive or meaningful reasons, and not for simple bad reasons like oversleeping.

This pattern first states a fact or result, and then gives its reason at the end: 'the reason (that) A is (that) B'. Putting the reason last makes it the important, new information. It is used in speech and writing when you explain a reason clearly, answer 'why?', or correct a wrong idea.

First you say your conclusion or opinion, and then なぜなら introduces the reason, which ends with からだ / からです. It works like 'This is so. The reason is that ...'. It is used mainly in writing, speeches and presentations; in everyday conversation it sounds stiff, and people often say どうしてかというと or just use から instead.

'A としたら B' means 'if we suppose that A is true (or will happen), then B'. A is something imagined, or information you have heard but are not sure about, and B is often a guess, judgment, question or wish. The three forms mean almost the same thing; としたら is the most common in conversation, and とすれば / とすると sound a little more logical. They are usually not used for things that will surely happen.

'A としても B' means 'even if we suppose A, B (still)'. The speaker imagines A, or accepts A for the moment, and says that B does not change because of it. B is often the speaker's decision, opinion or guess. This としても is different from 〜として ('as', a role), even though it looks similar.

'A にしても B' means 'even if A (is so), B': the speaker accepts A, or supposes it, but says B is still true. B is often the speaker's opinion, criticism or advice, for example 'that is too much' or 'you should still do this'. A is often something that is probably true, not only an imagined case. Some textbooks also teach にしても at N2.

たとえ is an adverb that makes 〜ても stronger. 'たとえ A ても、B' means 'even if A were true, B would not change'. A is usually a supposed situation, often an extreme or unwelcome one, and B is often a strong decision or something that stays the same. It is usually not used for something that has actually happened.

'A さえ B ば、C' means that if this one condition is met, C will happen, and nothing else is needed. It shows the minimum condition: 'as long as', 'all you need is'. With a past or のに ending, it shows regret that this one small thing was missing (地図さえあれば、道に迷わなかったのに). This さえ is different from the さえ that means 'even' (子どもでさえ知っている).

This pattern imagines a situation that is different from reality and says what would happen (or would have happened) in it. のに at the end adds regret, disappointment or a light complaint. The listener understands that the reality is the opposite: 早く出れば、間に合ったのに means 'I didn't leave early, so I didn't make it'. It is used for your own regrets and also for complaints about other people (言ってくれれば手伝ったのに).

〜ばよかった expresses regret about the past: 'I should have done it (but I didn't)'. The negative 〜なければよかった means 'I shouldn't have done it (but I did)'. When you say 〜ばよかったのに about someone else, it sounds like 'You should have...', with sympathy or a light complaint. It is about something that is already over, so it is not used to give advice about the future.

〜たらどうか suggests an action to someone: 'How about doing ...?'. The person who does the action is the listener or another person, not the speaker. At N3 you meet the plain どうか in writing and in reported suggestions (〜たらどうかと言われた), and the short casual forms 〜たらどう？ and 〜たら？ in conversation. Said in a sharp tone, 〜たらどう？ / 〜たらどうなの can sound like criticism: 'Why don't you just ...!'.

'A たら／と、B（past）' says that when someone did A, they found B, or B happened right after A. A has really happened, so this is not 'if'. B is something outside the speaker's control: a state they noticed, a surprise, or a change that A led to. たら is common in conversation; と is common in stories and writing.

'A たところ、B' means 'when I did A, the result was B / I found out B'. A is usually something done on purpose to find out or to try (asking, checking, trying), and B is the result or the new information. It is more formal than the discovery 〜たら, so it is common in reports, emails and news. It is different from 〜たところだ at the end of a sentence, which means 'have just done'.

This pattern has two uses. (1) After an action: doing it is useless because it will not change anything (今さら後悔してもしかたがない: there's no point regretting it now). (2) After a bad result: given the situation, it is natural or understandable, so you have to accept it (三回も遅れたのだから、怒られてもしかたがない: it's only natural to be scolded). Both uses carry a feeling of giving up or accepting something you don't like.

'A といっても、B' means 'It is true that A, but B': the speaker admits A, then corrects what the listener might imagine from it. B usually shows that the real degree is smaller or different from what A suggests (料理ができるといっても、簡単なものだけです). It is often used to be modest or to give a more exact picture.

'A 一方（で）、B' puts two things side by side. It can show two different sides of one thing (便利な一方で、家賃が高い), a contrast between two people or things (兄は〜一方、弟は〜), or two activities that someone does in the same period (働く一方で、大学で勉強している). It sounds a little formal and is common in writing and the news.

'A 反面、B' shows two opposite sides of one person or thing: A is often a good point and B a bad point, or the other way round. The two sides should really be opposite, so two good points (or two bad points) do not fit. It sounds a little formal and is common in writing, but it is also used in speech.

'A のに対して、B' puts two different people or things side by side and shows that they are opposite or clearly different: 'A is X, whereas B is Y'. It states the difference as a fact, without surprise or complaint, so it is common in explanations, reports and comparisons with numbers. This is different from 〜に対して meaning 'toward / against' (先生に対して).

〜に反して says that what actually happened is the opposite of what people expected, forecast or hoped. The part before に反して names the expectation, and the part after it tells the real result. It sounds a little formal and is common in news and writing. In casual talk, people often use 〜と違って instead.

〜さえ picks out an extreme example: something very easy, basic or unexpected. The message is 'even X, so of course the others too'. For example, ひらがなさえ書けない means the person can't write even hiragana, so kanji is out of the question. It is often used with negative or 'can / can't' sentences, and it can also show surprise in positive sentences.

〜こそ strongly points to one thing and says 'this one, and not any other'. It is used to say that something is the most important or the true one (これこそ本物だ), to show strong determination after a failure (今度こそ合格したい), and in the polite reply こちらこそ ('it is I who should say that'). It usually stresses something the speaker sees as important or right.

At N5 you learned など for listing examples (AやBなど). At N3, noun + など / なんか is also used with just one noun, in three ways. (1) To offer one example softly: このシャツなんかどう？ (2) To be modest about yourself: 私なんか、まだまだです. (3) To make something sound unimportant or to show dislike: 宿題なんか簡単だ, 虫なんか大きらい. The meaning comes from the context, and なんか is the more casual and emotional of the two.

〜なんて takes up a thing or a fact and shows the speaker's strong feeling about it. After a whole sentence, it usually shows surprise or disbelief: 'to think that ...!'. After a noun, it often makes the thing sound unimportant or shows dislike, like なんか. It is casual and emotional, so it is common in conversation.

〜てばかりいる says that someone does the same action again and again, or all the time, and does not do other things they should do. It usually carries the speaker's criticism, worry or complaint. It does not have to be 100% true; it means 'so often that it feels like nothing else'. 〜てばかりいないで is a common way to tell someone to stop doing only one thing.

〜ばかりでなく means 'not only A, but also B'. It gives one fact and then adds another fact of the same kind. It means almost the same as だけでなく but sounds a little more formal, so it is common in writing and news. 〜ばかりか is stronger: the added part is often more surprising or more extreme, as in 'not only A, but even B'. ばかりか is often studied at N2.

〜だけでなく means 'not only A, but also B'. だけ ('only') + でなく ('is not') says that A is not the only one, and the second part adds B, usually with も. It is the most common way to say 'not only ... but also' and works in conversation, writing, requests and advice.

〜はもちろん means 'A, of course, and B too'. A is the obvious case that everyone would expect, and the second part adds B, which is less obvious. In negative sentences, A is the bigger thing that is clearly impossible, and B is a smaller thing that is also impossible: 旅行はもちろん、散歩にも行けない. It is used in both conversation and writing.

〜に関して shows the topic of talking, writing, asking or research: 'regarding X' or 'about X'. The meaning is almost the same as について, but に関して is more formal. It is common in news, business, school notices and official writing. In everyday conversation with friends, について is more natural.

〜に対して shows the person or thing that an action, an attitude or a feeling is aimed at: 'toward', 'to' or 'against'. It is used for how you treat people (kind, polite, strict), how you respond (answer, protest), and what you feel (angry, grateful). It is a little more formal than the simple particle に. (に対して for contrast, 'whereas', is a separate pattern.)

〜にとって means 'for X' in the sense of 'from X's point of view'. It shows whose standpoint is used to judge something as important, difficult, useful, and so on. The part after it gives that judgment, usually with an adjective, a noun + だ, or an evaluating verb such as 役に立つ or 〜になる. It is not followed by a simple action or a wish.

〜として shows the role, position, or kind of thing in which someone or something acts or is seen: 'as a student', 'as a meeting room'. The noun before it tells you in what capacity the action happens. 〜としては often introduces an opinion from someone's position, and 〜としての connects to a following noun.

〜によって shows the method or means used to do something: 'by discussion', 'through a survey'. It sounds more formal than で and is common in news, reports, and official notices. It is often used with verbs like 決める, 解決する, 集める and 連絡する, where a method leads to a result.

〜によって says that something is different for each N: 'it differs from country to country', 'it depends on the day'. The rest of the sentence usually has a word like 違う or 変わる. 〜によっては picks out some of those N and says what can happen in their case: 'in some cases', 'for some people'.

〜において means the same as で (place or situation) but is formal. It is used in writing, news, speeches, and official notices, for example when saying where an event is held or in what field something is true. In everyday conversation, で is normally used instead.

〜にかわって means that someone or something takes the place of the noun before it. It is used when one person does another person's job for a time (the manager is away, so I speak instead), and when something new replaces something old (email in place of letters). It sounds a little formal and is common in speeches, announcements and news.

〜かわりに has two main uses. First, 'instead of': you do or use B, not A (coffee → tea, going out → reading at home). Second, 'in exchange for / to make up for': one thing is balanced by another, as in 'I teach you English, and in return you teach me Japanese'. With adjectives, it often means a thing has one good point and one bad point: 'far from the station, but cheap'.

〜をはじめ gives one main or typical example first, and then talks about the whole group that includes it: 'the president and all the other staff', 'temples and many other old buildings'. The noun before it is usually the most important or best-known member of the group. It sounds a little formal and is common in speeches, news and writing.

〜を中心に says that the noun is the center or the main part of something. It is used for places (shops are gathered around the station), for people (a group led by Linh), and for 'mainly' (popular mainly with young people; rain mainly in the Kanto area). Other things are also included, but the noun is the core.

〜を通して has two uses. First, 'through / via': something reaches you by way of a person, a medium, or an experience (I met my wife through a friend; I learned through my part-time job). Second, 'throughout': the same state continues for a whole period (warm all year round). を通じて has the same meaning and sounds a little more formal.

〜をきっかけに names an event that gave someone the chance or the push to start something new or to change. The second half usually says what began or changed: started studying, quit smoking, came to like something. The event before it is often one moment (an illness, a move, a meeting), and what follows is a new development.

〜をこめて means that you put a feeling or a wish into something you make or do: cooking with love, writing a letter full of thanks, singing with a wish for peace. The noun before it is almost always a feeling word. 心をこめて is a very common set phrase meaning 'with all one's heart / carefully and sincerely'.

〜につれて shows that when one thing changes little by little, another thing also changes little by little: 'as time passes, the town changes'. Both halves are gradual changes, so the second half often ends with 〜なる, 〜てくる, 〜ていく or 〜ようになる. It describes a change that happens naturally, so it usually does not end with a request or the speaker's plan.

にしたがって has two uses. First, A にしたがって B means 'as A changes, B also changes little by little'; both A and B are gradual changes. Second, noun + にしたがって means 'following' a rule, an instruction or a guide, and doing what it says. The tone is a little formal, so it is common in explanations, news and written Japanese.

とともに has three main uses. With a person, it means 'together with' and is a more formal way to say と一緒に. With an event, it means 'at the same time as' (卒業とともに = right when I graduate). With a change, it means 'as A changes, B changes too', like につれて. It sounds formal, so it is common in speeches, news and writing.

A には B means 'to do A, B is needed / B is best / it takes B'. A is a goal, and B tells you what is necessary for it, how to reach it, or how hard or easy it is. B is usually a judgment or a question, not a report of one action someone actually did. It is common when asking for or giving advice and directions.

A particle like へ, で or から normally connects a noun to a verb (友だちへ送る, 日本で生活する). To connect it to another noun instead, you add の after the particle: 友だちへの手紙 = a letter to a friend. The particle keeps its meaning (direction, place, starting point, partner, end point), so the phrase is clearer than noun + の + noun alone.

わけだ shows a conclusion that follows naturally from a fact. In one use, the speaker learns a reason and now understands a situation they already knew about: 'no wonder'. In another, the speaker works out what a fact means: 'so that means ...'. In both cases, there is a clear reason or fact behind the statement.

わけではない denies a conclusion that the listener might draw from a situation. It does not deny everything; it says 'that is not the whole story' or 'not always'. It often goes with words like いつも, みんな, 全部 and 別に, and it is common when explaining your feelings or reasons: 嫌いなわけではない = it's not that I dislike it.

わけがない strongly denies a possibility: from what the speaker knows, something is impossible or cannot be true. It is the speaker's own firm judgment, often with a reason given before it. It is common in conversation, and そんなわけない is a set phrase meaning 'No way!'.

わけにはいかない means that you are able to do something, but you cannot do it because of your duty, good manners, other people's feelings or the situation. It is not about ability: the speaker judges that doing it would be wrong or inappropriate. It often comes after a reason with から or ので.

〜ないわけにはいかない means 'I cannot not do it', so 'I have to do it'. The reason is usually a duty, a relationship or the situation, not the speaker's wish. It often suggests that the speaker would rather not do it, but feels it would be wrong or rude to avoid it.

べきだ gives the speaker's strong opinion about what is right or proper to do, based on common sense, morals or the role of a person. It is stronger than 〜たほうがいい and can sound like a lecture when used directly to someone. べきだった looks back with regret: 'I should have done it (but I didn't)'.

に違いない shows that the speaker is almost completely sure about something, often because of something they see or know. It is a judgment or conclusion about a fact, not a plan. It is a little formal and is common in writing and stories; in everyday conversation, people often use きっと〜と思う or 〜はずだ instead.

に決まっている shows that the speaker is completely sure, as if there could be no other answer. It is the speaker's own strong, sometimes one-sided belief, and it is mainly used in conversation. It is often used to say 'of course' in reply to a question, or to warn someone about an obvious result.

〜おそれがある says that something bad or unwanted may happen. It is a formal expression, so you often hear it in weather reports, news and official notices. It is used for bad results such as storms, damage, illness or delays, not for good news.

〜とは限らない means 'not necessarily'. It says that something people usually believe is not true in every case, and that there are exceptions. It is a partial negation: 高い物がいい物だとは限らない does not mean expensive things are bad, only that they are not always good. The adverb 必ずしも (not always) is often put in front to make this meaning clear.

〜のではないか shows the speaker's guess: 'I think that it may be so'. Although it has ない, it is not a negative sentence. 難しいのではないか means 'I think it is difficult'. It is also a soft way to give an opinion, because the speaker does not say it too strongly. In conversation it becomes 〜んじゃないか or 〜んじゃない？.

This pattern uses two negatives to make a weak 'yes'. 行けないことはない means 'it's not that I can't go', so 'I can go, but...'. The speaker admits that something is possible or true, but is not very positive about it, and often adds a reason or a condition after が or けど. こともない sounds a little softer than ことはない.

〜ことは〜が admits that something is true, but says it is not enough or not the whole story. 読むことは読んだが means 'I did read it, but (I didn't understand it well)'. The part after が or けど gives the problem or the limit. It is useful when you agree only partly, or when the result was not as good as hoped.

〜ことだ gives strong advice: 'the most important thing is to do ...'. The speaker says what the listener should (or should not) do to get a good result. Because it sounds like advice from someone with more experience, it is usually used by teachers, parents, seniors or experts, and not toward someone in a higher position.

〜ことはない tells someone that an action is not necessary. It is often used to comfort or calm the listener: 心配することはない means 'there's no need to worry'. The past form 〜ことはなかった looks back and says 'there was no need to do that'. After the dictionary form, ことはない can also mean 'it never happens' (この店が休むことはない), so read the context.

〜ことか expresses a very strong feeling: 'how (much) ...!' or 'so many times!'. It looks like a question, but it is not one, and no answer is expected. The speaker is saying that the degree is very high, as in どんなに心配したことか (How worried I was!). It is a little literary and is common in writing and emotional speech.

Ending a sentence with 〜こと gives an instruction or a rule: 'you must do ...' or 'do not ...'. It is used in written rules, notices, exam instructions and school handouts. Teachers and parents also use it when they state rules to students or children. Because it is a short, direct order, it is usually not used when you speak politely to customers or superiors.

〜ということだ and 〜とのことだ report information that the speaker heard or read: 'I hear that ...' or 'I'm told that ...'. They sound more formal than 〜そうだ and are common in news and business. とのことだ is often used to pass on a message from someone else, for example on the phone at work: 田中さんから、少し遅れるとのことです.

〜ということだ here explains what something means or states a conclusion drawn from a fact: 'that means ...' or 'in other words ...'. The speaker looks at a situation or at what someone said and puts its meaning into other words. In the question form 〜ということですか, you check whether you have understood correctly. This is different from the hearsay 〜ということだ, which reports information from someone else.

〜というのは picks up a word, name or idea as the topic in order to explain or define it: 'what X means is ...'. The sentence usually ends with 〜のことだ, 〜という意味だ or an opinion about it. You also use it to ask about a word you don't know: 〜というのは何ですか. At the start of a sentence, というのは introduces the reason for what you have just said, and the sentence usually ends with 〜からだ.

In 'A という B', A is a whole sentence that tells the content of B: 合格したという知らせ is 'the news that (someone) passed'. B is a noun that carries information, such as news, a story, a rumor, an opinion, an idea or a message. ということ works in the same way and turns a sentence into a noun, so you can put が, を or は after it: 'the fact that ...'. This is a step up from the N4 use, where the part before という is only a name (さくらというレストラン).

'X といえば Y' takes up a topic X and says the first thing that comes to mind about it, usually something typical or famous: 夏といえば花火 (speaking of summer, fireworks). It is also used when a word someone just said reminds you of something to talk about next. というと is often used to check what the other person means (A: 田中さんが… B: 田中さんというと、背の高い田中さんですか). といったら is a little more casual and emotional in conversation.

〜ものだ says that something is true by nature or in general, not just this one time: 人は間違えるものだ (people make mistakes; that's how people are). It is also used for common sense about how people should act: 約束は守るものだ (you should keep your promises). It often adds a feeling that the speaker has noticed or accepted this truth, as in 楽しい時間は早く過ぎるものですね.

〜たものだ looks back on something the speaker often did or that often happened in the past, with a feeling of missing those days: 子どものころは、よくこの川で泳いだものだ (when I was a child, I often used to swim in this river). In this nostalgic meaning, it is used for habits that went on for some time, not for something that happened only once. It often suggests that things are different now.

〜ものではない gives general advice based on common sense or good manners: 'one shouldn't do that'. It is often used by parents, teachers or older people when they warn or scold someone: 人の悪口を言うものではない (you shouldn't speak ill of others). It is not about a written rule or one person's plan; it is about what people in general should not do. With a potential verb (なれる, できる), it says something is not easy to do.

〜ものか is a strong, emotional 'no'. It has two main uses. (1) A firm decision not to do something: あんな店、二度と行くものか (I'll never go to that shop again!). (2) Strongly rejecting what someone else said or thinks: 「簡単でしょう？」「簡単なものか」 (Easy? It's not easy at all!). It is spoken language, said with a falling tone, and it can sound rough, so it is not used in formal situations.

Here つもり is not a plan. 〜たつもりだ says what the speaker believes they did, often when the facts or other people's views are different: 鍵をかけたつもりだった (I thought I had locked it, but ...). With adjectives and nouns it shows how someone sees themselves, which may not match reality: 父はまだ若いつもりだ. 〜つもりで + action means doing something while imagining that something is true: 旅行に行ったつもりで、そのお金を貯金した (I saved the money, telling myself I'd already been on the trip).

〜てたまらない says that a feeling or a body sensation is so strong that the speaker can hardly stand it: 暑くてたまらない (it's unbearably hot), 会いたくてたまらない (I'm dying to see them). It is used with words for feelings and sensations, such as うれしい, 心配, 寂しい, 痛い, 眠い, 〜たい and 気になる. It usually describes the speaker's own feelings; for other people, ようだ, らしい or そうだ is usually added.

〜てしかたがない says that a feeling or a body sensation is so strong that the speaker can't control it: 心配でしかたがない (I can't stop worrying). It is also common with things that happen by themselves, like 気になる or 涙が出る. しょうがない is the more casual, spoken form. Do not confuse it with 〜てもしかたがない, which has も and means 'there's no point in ...'.

せっかく shows that something is valuable: an effort someone made or a rare, good chance. With のに, the value was wasted, so the speaker feels sorry or disappointed: せっかく作ったのに、誰も食べなかった (I went to the trouble of cooking, but nobody ate). With のだから / から, the speaker wants to make good use of the chance, so a wish, suggestion or decision follows: せっかく来たんだから、写真をとろう (since we came all this way, let's take photos). せっかくですが is a polite way to turn down an offer while showing thanks.

わざわざ says that someone did something that took extra time or effort and was not really necessary, instead of doing it the easy way or on the way to somewhere else. When the action is for you, it shows thanks: わざわざ来てくれてありがとう (thank you for taking the trouble to come). It is also used to say an effort is not needed, or to wonder why someone chose the harder way: わざわざ遠くの店まで行ったの？

つい〜てしまう says that someone did something they didn't mean to do, because of habit, temptation or a moment of carelessness, and often feels bad about it: ダイエット中なのに、つい甘い物を食べてしまう (I'm on a diet, but I end up eating sweets). The present form (〜てしまう) is used for things that happen again and again; the past (〜てしまった) for one time. つい is used for actions a person does, not for things that happen by luck. (With time words, つい has another meaning, 'just': ついさっき = just a moment ago.)

With a negative, どうしても says that something does not work or cannot be done, even though the speaker has tried many ways. With a wish or a need, it says that the speaker wants or needs something very strongly and will not give up. With 〜てしまう, it means the speaker cannot stop themselves from doing something. It shows strong feeling, so it is common when you explain a difficulty or make a serious request.

めったに〜ない says that something happens very rarely: not zero times, but almost never. It is about frequency (how often), so it is used with verbs, not to show the degree of an adjective. It is stronger than あまり〜ない and weaker than ぜんぜん〜ない. The set phrase めったにない means 'rare, hard to find'.

決して〜ない is a strong negative. With a verb, it often shows the speaker's firm decision ('I will never ...') or a strong warning ('Never do ...'). With an adjective or noun, it strongly denies an idea: 'it is by no means ...'. It sounds serious and a little formal, so it is common in writing, speeches and warnings.

少しも〜ない and ちっとも〜ない mean 'not at all, not even a little'. They make the negative complete. ちっとも is casual and is used in conversation, often with a feeling of complaint or surprise. 少しも can be used in both speech and writing, and 全く〜ない sounds the most formal. Note that 全く can also be used in affirmative sentences (全く同じだ, 'exactly the same'), but 少しも and ちっとも are used with a negative.

まさか shows that the speaker thinks something is almost impossible. With 〜ないだろう or 〜はずがない, it means 'surely it won't happen': the speaker strongly believes it is not true. With 〜とは思わなかった, something that the speaker never expected has really happened, and the speaker is surprised. In a question like まさか〜の？, it means 'Don't tell me ...!'

ところが introduces a result that goes against what sentence A made you expect. It often carries surprise, and the result can be bad or good. It is common when telling a story or explaining what happened. Because B is a fact that the speaker did not expect, ところが is not used before your own opinion or request; use でも or しかし for those.

ところで is used to change the topic: 'by the way'. It shows that the speaker is finished with the last topic and now wants to talk about something else. It is often used after small talk to move to the real business, or to ask about something that has just come to mind. It does not show contrast or a result.

In its first use, すると says that right after someone did A, B happened or was discovered. B is something the speaker does not control: a change, a reaction or a new fact. It is common in stories and written explanations. In its second use, すると takes what the other person just said and draws a conclusion from it, like 'then' or 'in that case'.

そのうえ and しかも add one more point on top of what was just said. The two points go in the same direction: good + good, or bad + bad. そのうえ sounds a little formal and is common in writing. しかも puts more stress on the added point and is often used when that point is surprising or especially important.

つまり is used to say something again in a different, clearer way, or to give the conclusion that follows from what was said. 要するに is used to sum up the main point, often after a long or complicated explanation. Both are common when you check what the other person means: つまり、〜ということですか. 要するに can sound a little impatient, as if the speaker wants to skip the details.

したがって and そのため both mean 'therefore': B follows from A. そのため points back to A as the cause ('because of that'), so it is common for events such as delays, cancellations and changes. したがって sounds more logical and more formal, and it is often used when B is a conclusion you can reason out from A, as in rules, calculations and explanations. In everyday conversation, だから or それで is used instead.

である has the same meaning as だ and です, but it is used in formal writing: essays, reports, newspaper articles and textbooks. It sounds objective and serious. A text written in である style uses plain forms everywhere and does not mix in です / ます. In conversation it is rarely used, except in speeches.

This is the written partner of the て-form. Instead of 〜て、 or 〜くて、, written Japanese often uses the ます-stem or 〜く to join two clauses. The meaning is the same as with the て-form: actions in order, two facts side by side, or sometimes a light cause. It is common in newspapers, reports, essays and formal speeches, and it often appears together with である style. The last predicate of the sentence shows the tense and the politeness.